1. Designing 1-1 Interviews and Focus Groups Desmond Thomas, University of Essex

2. Some points to consider … The aims of interviewing Problem areas in interviewing How to formulate questions and interpret answers Ethical considerations How to standardize interview procedures How to record & analyse interview data

3. Useful references Gillham, B. 2005, Research Interviewing, Maidenhead: Open University Press Seale, C.(ed.), 2004, Researching Society and Culture, London: Sage Krueger, R. 1994, Focus Groups: a Practical Guide for Applied Research, Thousand Oaks CA: Sage

4. Aims of interviewing? To obtain qualitative (or sometimes quantitative) data which is: Relevant Accurate Valid Reliable Obtained ethically

5. Advantages of 1-to-1 interviews Depth of information Insights eg gained from key informants Flexibility of formats Validity: direct contact means that data can be checked for accuracy and for relevance High response rate Opportunity for targeted individuals to make their voice heard – element of advocacy

6. Key Problem Areas The ‘interviewer effect’ and power relationships: face-to-face contact can directly influence answers The ‘instant position’ effect: respondents feel obliged to supply answers of some sort Investment of time and resources Complexity of data analysis Reliability issues for multiple interviews Establishing rapport

7. Features of interview design How many questions are required? In what order? How long/short? Format? (open qqs, statements etc.) Follow-up probes and/or prompts? Wording of questions? Mode of recording/analysing answers?

8. Design pitfalls (re-visited) Respondents often answer questions when they don’t really know the answer. Respondents can deliberately not answer or answer incorrectly (ie they lie) Respondents misinterpret questions Small changes in wording can produce major changes in responses. Attitudes and opinions can be unstable; circumstances can change Memory can be unreliable. Relationship between what respondents say they do and what they actually do is not strong. Cultural context has an impact on responses The format itself can affect responses The order of questions and answers to earlier questions can affect responses. And …The interviewer can affect responses

9. Conducting an interview Establishing a relationship/trust Explaining aims & procedures Low key presentation of self and involvement Active listening Clarifications, probes and prompts Recording and analysing data

10. Ethical interviewing Informed consent: knowing what the interview is for and how the data will be used Right of respondent to withdraw Assurance of confidentiality Adherence to professional guidelines: http://www.essex.ac.uk/reo/research_commu nity/research_governance/ethics_in_researchhttp://www.essex.ac.uk/reo/research_commu nity/research_governance/ethics_in_research

11. What are focus groups? They consist of a small group of people who are brought together by a trained ‘moderator’ (usually the researcher) to explore attitudes, feelings and ideas about a particular topic or set of issues

12. Main characteristics of FGs A question schedule is prepared by the moderator to focus the discussion Place value on interaction within the group as a means of eliciting information – a social experience No requirement to reach consensus Less pressure to hold a fixed point of view – in fact opinions can develop

13. FGs are useful when … Topics or issues need to be explored in depth, or attitudes revealed Typical groups of key informants are to be targeted eg language teachers

14. Advantages of FGs A less directive interview format ‘Interviewer bias’ can be greatly reduced Provide a more natural social forum for the exchange of ideas. Interviewees are able to take the initiative – not just respond The right to silence

15. FG problem areas Less directive means less predictable Huge amounts of data can be collected, much of which may be unusable Perception that FGs are a market research tool (Tony Blair & New Labour)

16. Focus Group Case Study: Bulgarian Teacher Trainees Aims: to discover perceptions of main problem areas in teaching Participants: groups of 4-6 trainees Questions: listed on a question schedule Led by: the researcher as moderator Analysis: grouping responses in data categories and comparisons with data from other sources

17. Successful Interviewing: conclusions & do’s/don’ts Observe design principles. Keep in mind research aims and start with information required (not questions) Observe careful procedures. Clarify your agenda (do not mislead!), think about how to establish rapport, allow time and space for the respondent to produce valid reflective answers. Pilot question schedules and keep impeccable records at all times.