1. Interviewing

2. Learning Objectives Plan and set up an interview
Research background information about the interview subject
Write appropriate questions for interviews
Take notes efficiently
Conduct an interview
Participate in news conferences and other special interviews

3. Interviewing
An interview is a formal conversation between a reporter and a source for the purpose of gathering information and opinion.
If a reporter cannot interview effectively, the finished product lacks the human element, the quotations and personal interpretations that bring news stories and features alive in readers’ or viewers’ minds.

4. Interviewing cont.
People like to hear and read what authorities have to say, and they like to know people’s reactions to issues and situations.
Without interviews, a reporter’s only sources would be physical sources such as books, maps, surveys and news releases.
News needs a human element, a real-life perspective achieved by using quotes from people acting as sources of information.

5. Planning for an Interview
Reporters who plan their interviews carefully get the most information and the best quotations.
You are already performing informal interviews every day. Moving into interviewing to gather information and interpretation for news stories is an easy transition.

6. Primary and Secondary Sources
A primary source is a person who has information that is essential to the story. Every story will have at least one primary source, and some will have several.
Secondary sources are people or documents that add additional information, perspective and interpretation to a story but are not vital to its existence.

7. Primary and Secondary Sources cont.
Primary and secondary sources may be people or they may be physical. Books, surveys, budgets, minutes of meetings, and data gathered from the internet are physical sources.
The reporter’s first job is to find out who or what the primary sources are.

8. Researching for an Interview
After you have made a list of sources for the story, it is time to research your topic. Being prepared is very important to a reporter’s success. Being unprepared makes the reporter and the newspaper look bad. It may make sources hesitant to talk with you or your colleagues in the future.

9. Researching for an Interview cont.
Before calling for an interview, gather the facts about your topic. Information gathered about a person or subject before an interview is called background information. Background information helps the reporter prepare for the interview. It is not intended to be used as primary material for the story itself.

10. Making the Most of Sources
By doing some simple research before an interview, a reporter can have enough background information to formulate questions that will elicit valuable information and usable quotations from appropriate sources.
For a school assignment, try to interview people you don’t know.
Readers at school know your friends and can figure out whether you did the necessary background research or you waited until the last minute to ask your friends a few questions.

11. Making the Most of Sources cont.
Experienced reporters will sometimes ask questions to which they already know the answers. This tactic can help verify or update information and establish the credibility of the source. It is a good way to make sure you and your source have the same information and a mutual understanding of your topic when you begin the interview.
If sources give answers that do not agree with information you have, you will need to check further to see which information is correct. Even when information seems to agree, a good reporter verifies it with a third source.

12. Making the Most of Sources cont.
Sometimes the only way to get information is from the primary source.
Because a reporter’s task is to convey information accurately and clearly to an audience, ask your sources to repeat explanations until you are confident you understand.

13. Making the Most of Sources cont.
One interview is not usually enough for a complete story.
The number of sources needed depends on the type of story being written. A good news story that covers all sides of an issue will likely require five to 10 sources.
Some sources interviewed for a story may not be quoted in the story but can still provide background information that helps the reporter understand the story or verify the information. The number of interviews is not as important as the reporter’s thorough understanding of the information. It is better to have more information and sources than are necessary than to miss a key point.

14. Preparing the Questions
The next step in preparing for an interview is compiling a list of questions.
Background information is useful in helping you come up with questions.
After you have researched the background of your sources, a good place to move on to is the standard news cues known as the 5 Ws and an H: who, what, when, where, why and how.

15. Using News Cue Questions
Answers to questions beginning with the standard news cues provide information for the lead of the story.
More than six questions will be necessary to get enough information for a story, and some of the six news cues may not be appropriate for a particular story.
To make an interview productive, a reporter must go into it knowing what questions need to be answered to make the story interesting and to meet the requirements of the editor’s assignment.

16. Using News Cue Questions cont.
Multiple who and what questions can be formulated for most stories. Asking “Why?” or “Why do you say that?” is a good follow-up response to a source’s answer if you want to keep a source talking or have the source clarify a point.
It’s much easier to write from an abundance of information, so prepare more questions than you think are necessary to get the story.

17. Open-Ended and Yes-No Questions
Open-ended questions are questions that ask for an opinion or interpretation from the source.
Yes-no questions are questions worded in such a way that the source may easily answer yes or no.
Answers of yes or no not only make the interviews boring but also make the final story very hard to write, because the reporter has too little information with which to work. Open-ended questions are more likely to provide good quotations.

18. Open-Ended & Closed-Ended Questions
Use open-ended questions when a subject won’t open up:
Tell me about your son.
Talk about that for a minute.
Describe what you did at that point.
Use closed-ended questions when a subject won’t shut up, or is being vague or evasive:
Did you take the money?
What was her name?
How many hikers are missing?
When did he graduate?
From Anderson, D., and Itule, B., Writing the News, Ch. 7. New York: Random House

19. Phrasing Clear Questions
Asking questions to get good responses is important. Asking for too much information at one time, however, may confuse the source and make it difficult for the person to answer.
Explaining the background before you ask a question seems to create a long question that could confuse the source. However, it helps the source to know why you’re asking the question and that you have some knowledge on the subject.

20. Conducting Individual Interviews
Most interviews a reporter does are one-on-one with a source.
Common courtesy and common sense are the best tools a reporter can use when working with individuals in person, on the telephone or in front of a camera.

21. Before the Interview
When you have completed your research for an interview and have carefully planned your questions, contact the source to make an appointment.
If the source is someone you know, you can catch up with them in the hall at school and tell them.
If you do not know the source, it may be easier to telephone at a time when you will be able to explain in detail who you are and what you want.

22. Before the Interview cont.
Always identify yourself as a reporter when you contact a source for an appointment.
Arrange a time to do the interview. Because you are asking for some of the interviewee’s time, try to be flexible and work around his or her schedule.
Thank the person for agreeing to speak with you.

23. Before the Interview cont.
Be prepared to do the interview when the source is available. Many sources will be ready and willing to talk at the time you call, so have questions prepared before you call.
Reporters do telephone interviews regularly, but try to conduct as many interviews as possible in person.
In addition to setting a time that is convenient for the source, try to meet the source on his or her territory. Next best thing is on neutral ground. Always arrive on time for the interview.

24. Taking Notes
What sets a good interviewer apart from a person who just asks good questions is the ability to interact with, listen to, and observe the subject and the surroundings to gather a complete picture.
Practice and experience are the best teachers of interviewing skills.
The first skill to master is a personal shorthand for taking notes. Writing down every word would slow the interview and interrupt the flow of conversation. At the same time, it is important to record all the facts and quotations accurately.

25. Taking Notes cont.
With practice, reporters devise their own note-taking language. This is a set of symbols and abbreviations reporters develop to help them take notes quickly.
-ppl for people -ev for every
-w/ for with -diff for different
-< and > for greater than or less than
-2 for to, too or two; 4 for for, fore or four
-2B for to be; B4 for before
-initials of people in a group to distinguish which one is speaking

26. Taking Notes cont.
It isn’t necessary to write down every word a speaker says. The ums and ya knows should be left out, of course, but also try leaving out the little words like a, an, the, and, but and or and reinserting them later.
Jot a question mark in the margin by anything that needs to be clarified before the interview ends.
Write the speaker’s name and phone number in the notes to make it convenient if you need to contact the source.

27. Asking Follow-Up Questions
Reporters who are good listeners pick out confusing concepts from a source’s answers and ask questions that will help clarify the information, even if those questions were not on their original lists.
These follow-up questions enable the reporter to be flexible enough to move in a different direction if the interview shifts away from the planned topic.

28. Observing and Recording Details
A good interviewer is also a good observer
Before, during and after the interview, an interviewer must pick up visual clues that will help add detail or human interest, especially if the assignment is a feature story.
A room can reveal a lot about its occupant.
Be careful not to stereotype individuals by their surroundings. A good approach is to ask the subject about your observation.

29. Observing and Recording Details
Write your observations in your notes right along with the answers from the interview.
Use some observations as a basis for follow-up questions.
A tape recorder helps a reporter get details during an interview. The are positive and negative aspects of using a recorder.
Always ask permission from a source before recording an interview.
Always take notes, even if a recorder is being used.

30. Observing and Recording Details
When you are just beginning to practice your interviewing techniques, it is best to leave the tape recorder at home and work on your note taking, listening and observing skills.
Broadcasters have no choice but to get their information on tape or camera. They also take notes for the parts of the story they must write.
Sources tend to speak more formally and professionally when the camera or tape recorder is running, because they know they are going to be seen or heard by the audience.

31. Establishing Rapport
Whether it’s in front of a camera, in a source’s office or on the telephone, establishing an agreeable, harmonious relationship between you and your source will help you get good information and encourage the source to be open.
A friendly greeting, a handshake, or a conversation about the weather or people you both know helps build the desired harmony, or rapport, you want before you begin the formal interview.

32. Establishing Rapport cont.
When you meet a source for the first time, introduce yourself, shake hands and chat for a while. This will let them know that you are a comfortable person to talk to. Your credibility and professionalism are on the line during this most important part of the interview, so be businesslike but friendly.
Many sources have a negative image of what reporters want, so they are hesitant about opening up. A good first impression will help break the ice and set a positive tone.

33. Establishing Rapport cont.
Sources will usually decide when they are ready to be interviewed or you may sense when the source is relaxed and open the interview yourself.
Briefly describe the purpose of the interview once again, and begin with some routine questions.
Then you can move through other questions that will give information to provide a well-rounded story.

34. Establishing Rapport cont.
Avoid asking confrontational questions—those that put the source on the defensive. The source will avoid giving you information.
A reporter is supposed to be a neutral bystander who gets facts on all sides of an issue. The source may feel like the reporter is siding with the opposition. Just ask the questions more diplomatically.
One way to accomplish this is by attributing the question to someone else.

35. Establishing Rapport cont.
By phrasing the question in the impersonal, general terms of many students or people, the reporter is giving the source a chance to explain the action so that his or her side of the story is presented fairly to the public.
The use of a question that seems to come from unnamed others, a third person question, is a simple way of getting sensitive information without seeming to pry for personal gain.
Asking the question in third person gives the question more power, because the person is answering to more than just the reporter.

36. Concluding the Interview
Before you close an interview, quickly review your notes.
Ask the source to clarify any points you are uncertain about and answer any questions you may have overlooked.
In just about every interview, the last question should be the same: “Is there anything you’d like to add?”
The question allows the source to summarize or restate points made earlier or to introduce topics the reporter may have missed. It also serves as a good conclusion to the interview.

37. Concluding the Interview cont.
Using the 5 Ws and an H is another good way to conclude an interview and be sure basic information has been covered.
-How do you spell your name?
-What is your title?
-Where may I reach you if I have questions?
-When is a good time to call?
-Who else do you suggest I talk to about this?
-Why would that person be a good source?
You may need a source for future stories, so end interviews with the same positive rapport created at the beginning.

38. Writing up the Interview
Read your notes as soon as possible after the interview.
Highlight quotes or points you think are especially significant.
Add notes about your impression of the person, mannerisms or actions that will help you remember how the words were spoken or how the person reacted to a question.

39. Writing up the Interview cont.
Fill in missing words, write out abbreviated words, and rewrite or type the notes.
Contact the source for any information that is missing or unclear.
Date your notes, and keep them on file.
The notes may be handy for future stories on the same topic or for recalling sources’ names if you want to call them again.
Your notes are also your defense if you’re ever challenged by a source.

40. Interviewing Groups
Interviewing a group, especially a close-knit one, or trying to interview a single person in a group situation, can detract from individual responses and change the atmosphere of the entire interview.
As a student reporter, you should avoid doing one-on-one interviews where students congregate. In these settings the sources will be tempted to give the answers their friends expect to hear rather than thoughtful responses they might give in a one-on-one interview.

41. Interviewing Groups cont.
Sometimes a reporter may want to get a sense of the camaraderie or the feeling of accomplishment among the sources by interviewing them as a group.
Getting quotations from person-on-the-street interviews is another exception. These interviews are conducted in places where people gather or move around.
Person-on-the-street interviews produce a random sampling of opinions on specific, high-profile issues and provide good student comments for stories and opinion pages.

42. Interviewing Groups cont.
News conferences are group interviews planned to convey information simultaneously from one source to many reporters.
The source, not the reporter, is in control at the news conference. The source, place, time and number of reporters present all affect the opportunity for one reporter to ask questions.
Practice is the best way to learn to get information from news conferences.
With patience and experience you will learn to get the needed information in almost any interview.

43. Sources
Schaffer, James, Randall McCutcheon and Kathryn T. Stofer. Journalism Matters. Lincolnwood: Contemporary, 2001.