1. Cosmic Alchemy: How Are We Made ? Prof. Paddy Regan FInstP Department of Physics University of Surrey Guildford, GU2 7XH p.regan@surrey.ac.uk

2. Medieval alchemist…trying to turn base metals into gold… Mistake…to try and use ‘chemistry’…needed nuclear physics

3. 3 Z = number of protons N= number of neutrons A = N+Z = mass number neutral atom has Z electrons m(nucleon)  2000  m(electron) AXNAXN Z For element X write Atoms comprise nuclei and electrons - known since 1910 Nuclei comprise protons and neutrons - known since 1932 the neutron Ernest Rutherford Nobel Chemistry 1909 Founder of Nuclear Physics the nucleus Marie Curie (see later) Nobel Physics 1903 Nobel Chemistry 1911 radioactivity J J Thomson Nobel Physics 1906 the electron

4. Atoms (‘indivisible’) …… ~10 -10 m, electrons (and their orbital structure) determine chemistry of the elements, e.g., NaCl Nuclei…..~10 -14 m across, protons determine the chemical element (Z); neutron number (N) determines the mass, (A = N+Z). > 99.9 % of the mass of the atom is in the nucleus. Nucleons (protons and neutrons ~10 -15 m) have a substructure, three quarks in each nucleon (‘ups’ and ‘downs’)…but they don’t exists on their own.

5. Mendeleyev

10. Moseley’s Law….evidence for Atomic numbers…. ‘Characteristic’ X-rays…with a chemical (Z) dependence

11. Z=43 Tc Z=61 Pm Z=84 Po Elemental composition of the Solar Nebula

12. Figure Wiescher, Regan & Aprahamian, Physics World Feb. 2002, page 33-38 Slow-neutron capture process allows formation of elements from A~56 to A=209 (Bi)... terminates at 209 Bi...why?

13. X-rays come from atomic ‘vacancies’ i.e. holes in the electron shells around the atom. Quantum mechanics means that the electron orbits are fixed in energy…. X-rays come from an electron ‘dropping’ from one energy level to a lower one

14. X-rays come from atomic ‘vacancies’ i.e. holes in the electron shells around the atom. Quantum mechanics means that the electron orbits are fixed in energy…. X-rays come from an electron ‘dropping’ from one energy level to a lower one

15. X-rays come from atomic ‘vacancies’ i.e. holes in the electron shells around the atom. Quantum mechanics means that the electron orbits are fixed in energy…. X-rays come from an electron ‘dropping’ from one energy level to a lower one X-ray emitted

17. Spectral Maps of the Galaxy Ref http://adc.gsfc.nasa.gov/mw/mmw_images.html

18. Full-sky Comptel map of 1.8 MeV gamma rays in 26 Mg following 26 Al  -decay. Nuclear reactions are taking place continually around the galaxy. Radioactive 26 Al around the Galaxy…. Diehl et al., Astron. Astrophys 97, 181 (1993)

19. Chart of the Nuclei 1H1H 2D2D 3 He 4 He 6 Li 7 Li n 9 Be 3T3T 6 He 5 Li 6 Be 7 Be 8 Li 9 Li 10 Be 10 Li 11 Li 8 He 11 Be 12 Be 10 B 11 B 9B9B 14 Be 12 B 13 B 14 B 15 B 8B8B 7B7B 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16 C 17 C 11 C 10 C 9C9C Z = No. of Protons 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 N = No. of Neutrons 012345 6789

20. Chart of the Nuclei The Landscape ~300 stable ~ 7000 unstable … radioactive.

22. What makes a nucleus ‘stable’? There is an ongoing interplay and competition between coulomb repulsion and strong nuclear force interactions The result is that only certain combinations of Z and N give rise to stable configurations (about 300 in total). Other non-stable types can ‘radioactively decay’ (about 7,000 predicted).

23. 23 Radiation in our Environment We are all constantly subject to irradiation mainly from natural sources. There are three main sources of such radiation.  a) Primordial -around since the creation of the Earth (  4.5 x 10 9 years)  235,8 U ( and daughters including 210 Po), 232 Th or 40 K (+ 87 Rb, 138 La and others....)  b) Cosmogenic – from interaction of Cosmic rays with Earth and atmosphere.  14 C, 7 Be formed from cosmic ray interactions. Cosmic rays are mostly protons.  c) Produced or enhanced by human activity.  Medical or dental X-rays;  137 Cs (product from nuclear fission, 239 Pu,  241 Am, 239 Pu from weapons fallout

24. 24 From NRPB-Average Radiation Dose in UK NRPB is now HPA-RPD

25. 25 Radioactive species in the body Isotope Average amount by weightActivity U-Uranium 90μg 1.1Bq Th-Thorium 30 μg 0.11Bq 40 K 17mg 4.4 kBq Ra 31pg 1.1Bq 14 C 22ng 3.7kBq 3 H-tritium 0.06pg 23Bq Po-Polonium 0.2pg 37Bq Some variation- for example smokers have 4-5 times more Po.

26. Z=43 Tc Z=61 Pm Z=84 Po Elemental composition of the Solar Nebula

27. How it all starts….Hydrogen (Z=1) to Helium (Z=2) The Proton-Proton Chain

30. Nuclear Fusion creates energy up to A~56 (Z=26 = Iron) If the star is hot enough, nuclear fusion will fuel the star and create elements up to A~56

31. Figure Wiescher, Regan & Aprahamian, Physics World Feb. 2002, page 33-38 Slow-neutron capture process allows formation of elements from A~56 to A=209 (Bi)... terminates at 209 Bi...why?

32. Once you have 4 He what next? 4 He + H → 5 Li not energetically allowed…neither is 4 He+ 4 He → 8 Be…we’re stuck with A=1,2,3 and 4…. BUT!!! 4 He can fuse with 2 other 4 He ( 8 Be) stuck together for a short time (~10 -16 sec) to make 12 C…complicated but understood. Once we have made 12 C (Z=6) nuclei can fuse together and gain energy (if the star is hot and massive enough) to make all elements up to Z=26 (Iron=Fe).

33.  B ~1.5 MeV per A

35. Once you have 56 Fe what next? Top of the binding energy per nucleon curve reached at A~56…fusion above this costs energy…bad news for the star - supernova BUT elements from 27-92 exist in nature – how are these made ? Neutron Capture – neutrons have no charge – no electrostatic repulsion.

36. Figure Wiescher, Regan & Aprahamian, Physics World Feb. 2002, page 33-38 Slow-neutron capture process allows formation of elements from A~56 to A=209 (Bi)... terminates at 209 Bi...why?

37. Figure Wiescher, Regan & Aprahamian, Physics World Feb. 2002, page 33-38 Slow-neutron capture process allows formation of elements from A~56 to A=209 (Bi)... terminates at 209 Bi...why? Neutron capture… no electrostatic barrier to nuclear fusion…. all you need are enough Neutrons…

38. Beta –radioactive decay, (consequence of E=mc 2 ) 2 types: (i) Beta- plus proton changes to a neutron (Z ->Z-1) (ii) Beta – minus neutron changes to a proton (Z -> Z+1)

39. Nuclear reactions in Red giant stars create ‘spare’ neutrons Stellar neutron sources in the middle of Red Giant stars (e.g., Betelguese) 13 C+ 4 He→ 17 O*→ 16 O + n 22 Ne+ 4 He → 26 Mg*→ 25 Mg + n

40. So, how do you make Gold ? Gold has 79 protons (i.e. Z=79) Start with Z=78 protons (i.e. Platinum) Specifically 196 Pt ( Pt = Z=78, N=196-78=118) Reaction is 196 Pt + neutron to make 197 Pt 197 Pt is radioactive and ‘beta-decays’ to make 197 Au (i.e., normal ‘stable’ gold).

41. S-process makes 209 Bi from 208 Pb+n → 209 Pb (T 1/2 =3.2hr) → 209 Bi Neutron capture on stable 209 Bi → 210 Bi (T 1/2 =5 days) → 210 Po. 210 Po →  + 206 Pb (stable nucleus, as is 207 Pb and 208 Pb) Polonium-210 ‘terminates’ the period table at Bi (via the s-process)

42. Q  210 Pb) = 5.41 MeV E  = 5.30 MeV E( 206 Pb) = 0.11 MeV T1/2 = 138 days. ‘ 218 Po =Radium A’ ‘ 218 At =Radium B’ C D E 210 Po =Radium ‘F’ Radon =‘Emanation’ ‘Radium’ C’ C’’ The Natural Decay Chain for 238 U BUT: Evidently, heavier (radioactive) elements like Th (Z=90) ; U (Z=92) exist ? How are they made?

43. = 214 Pb = 214 Bi

44. SN1987a before and after !!

47. A=N+Z = fixed

48. 48 For a give fixed A (isobar), we have different combinations of Z and N. e.g., A=Z+N=137 can be from Z=56, N=81 → 137 Ba 81 ; or Z=55, N=82 → 137 Cs 82 (see later)… Mass Parabolas and Radioactive Decays A = constant

49. Example of a mass parabola Mass energy (mc 2 ) A=N+Z=125 p → n +  + + 125 Xe : Z=54; N=71 125 Cs : Z=55; N=70 125 I : Z=53; N=72 125 Ba : Z=56; N=69 125 Te : Z=52; N=73 STABLE ISOBAR FOR A=125 125 In : Z=49 125 Sn : Z=50; 125 Sb : Z=51; n → p +  - +

50. Figure Wiescher, Regan & Aprahamian, Physics World Feb. 2002, page 33-38 Slow-neutron capture process allows formation of elements from A~56 to A=209 (Bi)... terminates at 209 Bi...why?

51. Summary What’s made where and how. –Hydrogen to Helium (in the sun, p-p chain CNO cycles). –Helium to Carbon, triple-alpha process, special fusion. –Carbon to iron: nuclear fusion reactions, if hot enough. –Above 56 Fe, (a) up to Z=92, 238 U, supernova, rapid neutron captures...also spits out material for future neutron capture in 2 nd / 3 rd generation star (b) can get up to 209 Bi ( 210 Po end-point) by slow neutron capture