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Atlantic Revolution, Global Echoes 1750 - 1914
Ways of the World Chapter 16
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Global Revolutions The 18th & 19th centuries were witness to social & political upheaval in many parts of the world Safavid Empire collapsed by 1730 Mughal Empire was fragmenting Wahhabi movement Threatened the Ottoman Empire Religious ideals were the basis of social uprisings in Central Asia Russia had a number of peasant uprisings China was home to a number of unsuccessful smaller rebellions leading up to the huge Taiping revolution Islamic revolutions in West Africa Series of wars in southern Africa Resulted in widespread violence & the creation of new states
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Uniqueness of Atlantic Revolutions
The Atlantic revolutions took place in a larger global context, but were distinctive in several ways compared to rebellions elsewhere. Costly wars put tremendous stress on the economies of European imperial powers Britain raised taxes on North American colonies France had to seek new revenue from landowners Atlantic revolutions were connected to one another Atlantic revolutionaries shared common ideals Atlantic revolutions all eliminated monarchs Global impact extending far beyond the Atlantic world
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Ideological Basis for Revolution
Ideals that drove revolution came from the Enlightenment & were shared across the ocean in newspapers, books, & pamphlets Political & social arrangements could be engineered & improved by human action Conventional ways of living and thinking came under attack: Divine right of kings State control of trade Aristocratic privilege Authority of a single church
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Ideological Basis for Revolution
New ideas: Liberty Equality Free trade Religious tolerance Republicanism Power of human rationality Popular sovereignty: The authority to govern is derived from the people rather than from God or established tradition John Locke: The “social contract” between ruler and ruled should only last as long as it served the people well
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North American Revolution
Revolutionary in that a decisive political change took place Not revolutionary in that it sought to preserve existing liberties rather than create new ones Grew out of a sudden effort by the British government to tighten control of its colonies & extract more revenue from them. Revolutionary leaders tended to be of elite social status
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North American Revolution
Revolution accelerated the established democratic tendencies of colonial society Political authority remained largely in the hands of existing elites who led the revolution Property requirements for voting lowered More white men of modest means were elected to state legislatures No women nor people of color shared in this expansion of political participation Slavery was gradually abolished in northern states, but was firmly entrenched in the southern states
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North American Revolution
Began the political dismantling of Europe’s empires in the Americas The “right of revolution” has inspired revolutionaries ever since The U.S. Constitution was one of the first efforts to put the political ideas of the Enlightenment into practice Bill of Rights Checks and balances Separation of church and state Federalism It has been a model for many other nations, and its ideas were at the core of many other political uprisings in the 19th century
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French Revolution Driven by deep conflicts rooted in France’s traditional social structure of the estates Far more violent, far reaching, and radical than the American Revolution French revolutionaries were attempting to recreate both a political & social structure from scratch Ideas of the French Revolution were spread across Europe mainly through Napoleon’s conquests
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French Revolution Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen:
Document created by the National Assembly, members of the 3rd Estate at the Estates General Declared that “men are born and remain free and equal in rights” These actions by the National Assembly launched the French Revolution
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French Revolution France created the world’s largest army through compulsory male service 800,000 men Led by officers from the middle & lower classes An army of citizens representing the nation Raised the question of female political equality far more explicitly than in America Women were active in the major events of the revolution In the end French revolutionaries were unwilling to offer any political rights to women, but the revolution itself paved the way for modern feminism Seemed inappropriate & threatening to men
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Napoleon Bonaparte General who seized power in a coup d'état
Preserved many gains of the revolution in Civil equality Secular legal codes Religious freedom Merit based promotion Spread the ideas & benefits throughout Europe via conquest Created the largest European empire since Rome Imposed revolutionary practices in conquered lands Ending feudalism Equality of rights Religious tolerance Codifying laws Rationalizing government administration Many places welcomed the reforms, but resented French domination Sparked nationalism throughout Europe
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Haitian Revolution, The French Caribbean colony of Saint Domingue was known as the richest colony in the world 8,000 plantations Produced 40% of the world’s sugar Produced nearly 50% of the world’s coffee Inequality and exploitation dominated this island 500,000 slave labor force 40,0000 whites Rich plantation owners, merchants, lawyers Poor whites 30,000 free people of color (often racially mixed)
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Haitian Revolution Example of the French revolution resonated in different ways for the different social groups in Haiti Rich whites saw an opportunity for greater colonial autonomy & freedom of trade Poor whites demanded equality of citizenship for all whites Free people of color interpreted “rights of man” as equal treatment for all free people, regardless of race Slaves saw an opportunity for personal freedom and an end to the entire slave labor system
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Haitian revolution Massive revolt began in 1791 fueled by rumors the French king had already ended slavery Warring factions of the islands population Slaves Whites Free people of color Outside intervention from Britain & Spain France Slaves were led by Toussaint Loverture, a former slave, & were able to overcome internal resistance, other foreign powers, & an attempt by Napoleon to reestablish French control
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Haitian Revolution Haitian Revolution resulted in unprecedented outcomes: Socially, the lowest class of society had become free & independent citizens It is the only completely successful slave revolt in history Politically, it became the 2nd independent republic in the Americas & the 1st non-European state to come from Western colonialism Defined all Haitian citizens as “black” and legally equal regardless of color or class Disallowed citizenship for most whites Plantation system destroyed Land redistributed among former slaves & free blacks Became a nation of small farmers with a much smaller export sector
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Haitian Revolution Other effects of the Haitian Revolution:
Fear among whites throughout the hemisphere Injected elites in Latin America with social conservatism that led to their countries independence in the early 19th century Led to a temporary expansion of slavery in other places like Cuba that increased sugar production to make up for Haiti’s decline Napoleon was persuaded to sell the Louisiana Territory to the United States, from which several slave states were created Did NOT lead to successful independence movements in the remaining Caribbean colonies
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Spanish American revolutions 1810-1825
Revolutions in Spanish & Portuguese colonies of Latin America were shaped by the American, French, & Haitian revolutions, as well as their own distinctive societies & historical experiences Like in North America, creole elites were upset by the Spanish monarchy Efforts to exercise greater authority over its colonies Higher taxes & tariffs Creole intellectuals had become familiar with the ideas of the European Enlightenment Popular sovereignty Republican government Personal liberty
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Spanish American revolutions
Differences b/t Spanish American independence movements & the American Revolution Spanish colonies governed in a more authoritarian manner Sharp divisions in society Class, race, region Whites in Latin America were greatly outnumbered by native Americans, those of African descent, & mixed races Conflict among Latin Americans b/c of race, class, ideology often accompanied the struggle against Spain Independence movements occurred with fear of social rebellion from the lower classes Impossibility of uniting all of the Spanish colonies Distance, geography, distinct & deeply rooted regional identities
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Categories of comparison for the Atlantic revolutions
Grievances Racial factors Political, social, cultural outcomes Influence on other revolutions
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Grievances North American, Haitian, & Spanish American revolutions all directed their grievances at the governments of European colonial powers French Revolutionaries’ grievances were directed inward at conflicts within their own society
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Racial Factors Racial factors played significant roles in the Haitian & Spanish American Revolutions Racial factors were a peripheral issue in America & France
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