1. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 1 PsychSmart INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

2. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 2 CHAPTER SEVEN: CHAPTER SEVEN: THINKING, LANGUAGE, AND INTELLIGENCE

3. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 3 Thinking and Reasoning What is thinking? What is thinking? What processes underlie reasoning and decision making? What processes underlie reasoning and decision making? How do people approach and solve problems? How do people approach and solve problems? What are the major obstacles to problem solving? What are the major obstacles to problem solving?

4. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 4 Cognitive Psychology Branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher mental processes, including thinking, language, memory, problem solving, knowing, reasoning, judging, and decision making Branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher mental processes, including thinking, language, memory, problem solving, knowing, reasoning, judging, and decision making

5. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 5 Thinking Manipulation of mental representations of information Manipulation of mental representations of information

6. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 6 Mental Images Representations in the mind of an object or event Representations in the mind of an object or event Not just visual representations but every modality Not just visual representations but every modality

7. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 7 Concepts Concepts Concepts Categorizations of objects, events, or people that share common properties Categorizations of objects, events, or people that share common properties Prototypes Prototypes Highly representative examples of a concept Highly representative examples of a concept Example: Vehicle Example: Vehicle

8. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 8 Algorithms and Heuristics Algorithm Algorithm Rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem Rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem a² + b² = c² a² + b² = c² Heuristic Heuristic Cognitive shortcut that may lead to a solution Cognitive shortcut that may lead to a solution Representativeness heuristic Representativeness heuristic Rule that one applies when he judges people by the degree to which they represent a certain category or group of people Rule that one applies when he judges people by the degree to which they represent a certain category or group of people Availability heuristic Availability heuristic Judging the probability of an event on the basis of how easily the event can be recalled from memory Judging the probability of an event on the basis of how easily the event can be recalled from memory

9. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 9 Solving Problems Steps in Problem Solving Figure 2 of Chapter 7

10. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 10 Solving Problems Preparation: Understanding and Diagnosing Problems Preparation: Understanding and Diagnosing Problems Well-defined Problem Well-defined Problem Both the nature of the problem itself and the information needed to solve it are available and clear Both the nature of the problem itself and the information needed to solve it are available and clear Ill-defined Problem Ill-defined Problem Not only the specific nature of the problem is unclear, but the information required to solve the problem is less obvious Not only the specific nature of the problem is unclear, but the information required to solve the problem is less obvious

11. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 11 Solving Problems Preparation: Understanding and Diagnosing Problems Preparation: Understanding and Diagnosing Problems Kinds of Problems Kinds of Problems Arrangement problems Arrangement problems Problems of inducing structure Problems of inducing structure Transformation problems Transformation problems

12. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 12 Solving Problems 3 Major Categories of Problems Figure 3 of Chapter 7

13. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 13 Solving Problems Solutions to Problems on Previous Slide Figure 4 of Chapter 7

14. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 14 Solving Problems Production: Generating Solutions Production: Generating Solutions Means-end Analysis Means-end Analysis Involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists Involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists Most frequently applied heuristic in problem solving Most frequently applied heuristic in problem solving Subgoals Subgoals Involves dividing a problem into intermediate steps Involves dividing a problem into intermediate steps

15. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 15 Solving Problems Judgment: Evaluating the Solutions Judgment: Evaluating the Solutions Final stage in problem solving Final stage in problem solving If solution is less concrete or if there is not a single correct solution, evaluating solutions becomes more difficult If solution is less concrete or if there is not a single correct solution, evaluating solutions becomes more difficult

16. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 16 Solving Problems Obstacles to Problem Solving Obstacles to Problem Solving Functional Fixedness Functional Fixedness Tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use Tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use Mental Set Mental Set Tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist Tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist Inaccurate Evaluation of Solutions Inaccurate Evaluation of Solutions Confirmation bias Confirmation bias Problem solvers favor initial hypotheses and ignore contradictory information that supports alternative hypotheses or solutions Problem solvers favor initial hypotheses and ignore contradictory information that supports alternative hypotheses or solutions

17. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 17 Solving Problems 3 Candle Problem: Place the three candles at eye level on a door so that the wax will not drip on the floor as the candles burn – using only the materials shown in the figure below. Figure 6 of Chapter 7

18. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 18 Solving Problems Solution to the 3 Candle Problem Figure 8 of Chapter 7

19. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 19 Creativity and Problem Solving Creativity Creativity Ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways Ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways Divergent thinking Divergent thinking Ability to generate unusual, yet appropriate, responses to problems or questions Ability to generate unusual, yet appropriate, responses to problems or questions Convergent thinking Convergent thinking Produces responses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic Produces responses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic

20. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 20 Learning to be a Better Thinker Redefine problems Redefine problems Use subgoals Use subgoals Adopt a critical perspective Adopt a critical perspective Consider the opposite Consider the opposite Think divergently Think divergently Experiment with various solutions Experiment with various solutions

21. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 21 Language How do people use language? How do people use language? How does language develop? How does language develop?

22. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 22 Language Communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules Communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules

23. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 23 Grammar: The Rules of Language Grammar Grammar System of rules that determines how our thoughts can be expressed System of rules that determines how our thoughts can be expressed Phonology Phonology Study of the smallest basic units of speech Study of the smallest basic units of speech Phonemes Phonemes Syntax Syntax Rules that indicate how words and phrases can be combined to form sentences Rules that indicate how words and phrases can be combined to form sentences Semantics Semantics Meanings of words and sentences Meanings of words and sentences

24. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 24 Language Development Babbling Babbling Speechlike but meaningless sounds Speechlike but meaningless sounds Critical period Critical period Production of Language Production of Language Telegraphic speech Telegraphic speech Overgeneralization Overgeneralization

25. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 25 Theories of Language Acquisition Learning Theory Approach Learning Theory Approach Nativist approach Nativist approach Universal grammar Universal grammar Language-acquisition device Language-acquisition device Interactionist approach Interactionist approach Genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach language Genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach language

26. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 26 Intelligence? What are the different definitions and conceptions of intelligence? What are the different definitions and conceptions of intelligence? What are the major approaches to measuring intelligence, and what do intelligence tests measure? What are the major approaches to measuring intelligence, and what do intelligence tests measure?

27. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 27 Intelligence? How can the extremes of intelligence be characterized? How can the extremes of intelligence be characterized? Are traditional IQ tests culturally biased? Are traditional IQ tests culturally biased? To what degree is intelligence influenced by the environment, and to what degree by heredity? To what degree is intelligence influenced by the environment, and to what degree by heredity?

28. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 28 Intelligence Capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges Capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges

29. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 29 Theories of Intelligence G-factor G-factor General factor for mental ability General factor for mental ability Was thought to underlie performance in every aspect of intelligence Was thought to underlie performance in every aspect of intelligence Recent theories view intelligence as a multidimensional concept Recent theories view intelligence as a multidimensional concept

30. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 30 Theories of Intelligence Fluid Intelligence Fluid Intelligence Reflects information-processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory Reflects information-processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory Crystallized Intelligence Crystallized Intelligence Accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that people learn through experience Accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that people learn through experience

31. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 31 Theories of Intelligence Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences: The Many Ways of Showing Intelligence Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences: The Many Ways of Showing Intelligence Eight or more different forms of intelligence Eight or more different forms of intelligence Information Processing as Intelligence Information Processing as Intelligence Information-processing approach Information-processing approach Way people store material in memory and use that material to solve intellectual tasks Way people store material in memory and use that material to solve intellectual tasks Speed of processing Speed of processing

32. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 32 Theories of Intelligence Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Figure 9 of Chapter 7

33. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 33 Theories of Intelligence Practical Intelligence and Emotional Intelligence Practical Intelligence and Emotional Intelligence Practical Intelligence Practical Intelligence Related to overall success in living Related to overall success in living Emotional Intelligence Emotional Intelligence Set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions Set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions

34. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 34 Theories of Intelligence Major Approaches to Intelligence Figure 10 of Chapter 7

35. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 35 Measuring Intelligence Intelligence Tests Intelligence Tests Quantify and measure intelligence in an objective manner Quantify and measure intelligence in an objective manner Sir Frances Galton Sir Frances Galton

36. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 36 Measuring Intelligence The Development of IQ Tests The Development of IQ Tests Alfred Binet Alfred Binet Mental age (MA) Mental age (MA) Chronological age (CA) Chronological age (CA) Intelligence quotient (IQ) Intelligence quotient (IQ) IQ score = MA/CA 100 IQ score = MA/CA x 100 Deviation IQ scores Deviation IQ scores Bell-shaped distribution Bell-shaped distribution

37. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 37 Measuring Intelligence Intelligence Distribution Curve Figure 11 of Chapter 7

38. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 38 Measuring Intelligence Contemporary IQ Tests Contemporary IQ Tests Achievement and Aptitude Tests Achievement and Aptitude Tests Achievement test Achievement test Designed to determine a person’s level of knowledge in a specific subject area Designed to determine a person’s level of knowledge in a specific subject area Aptitude test Aptitude test Designed to predict a person’s ability in a particular area or line of work Designed to predict a person’s ability in a particular area or line of work

39. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 39 Measuring Intelligence Reliability and Validity of Tests Reliability and Validity of Tests Reliability Reliability Tests measure consistently what they are trying to measure Tests measure consistently what they are trying to measure Validity Validity Tests actually measure what they are supposed to measure Tests actually measure what they are supposed to measure Norms Norms Standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person’s score on a test to scores of others Standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person’s score on a test to scores of others

40. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 40 Variations in Intellectual Ability Mental Retardation (Intellectual Disabilities) Mental Retardation (Intellectual Disabilities) Disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills Disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills Mildwith an IQ of 55 to 69 Mildwith an IQ of 55 to 69 Moderate with an IQ of 40 to 54 Moderate with an IQ of 40 to 54 Severe with an IQ of 25 to 39 Severe with an IQ of 25 to 39 Profound with an IQ below 25 Profound with an IQ below 25

41. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 41 Variations in Intellectual Ability Mental Retardation Mental Retardation Fetal alcohol syndrome Fetal alcohol syndrome Caused by a mother’s use of alcohol while pregnant Caused by a mother’s use of alcohol while pregnant Down Syndrome Down Syndrome Familial retardation Familial retardation No apparent biological defect exists, but there is a history of retardation in the family No apparent biological defect exists, but there is a history of retardation in the family The Intellectually Gifted The Intellectually Gifted Have IQ scores greater than 130 Have IQ scores greater than 130

42. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 42 Group Differences in Intelligence Background and experiences of test- takers have the potential to affect results Background and experiences of test- takers have the potential to affect results Some standardized IQ tests contain elements that discriminate against minority-group members whose experiences differ from those of the white majority Some standardized IQ tests contain elements that discriminate against minority-group members whose experiences differ from those of the white majority

43. Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 43 Nature, Nurture, and IQ Culture-fair IQ Test Culture-fair IQ Test One that does not discriminate against the members of any minority group One that does not discriminate against the members of any minority group Heritability Heritability Measure of the degree to which a characteristic can be attributed to genetic, inherited factors Measure of the degree to which a characteristic can be attributed to genetic, inherited factors