1. Essentials of Understanding Psychology
9th Edition
By Robert Feldman
PowerPoints by Kimberly Foreman
Revised for 9th Ed by Cathleen Hunt
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011

2. Chapter 7: Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
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3. MODULE 21: Thinking and Reasoning
What is thinking?
What processes underlie reasoning and decision making?
How do people approach and solve problems?
What are the major obstacles to problem solving?
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4. Cognitive Psychology
Branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher mental processes, including:
thinking,
Manipulation of mental representations of information
language,
memory,
problem solving,
knowing,
reasoning,
judging, and
decision making
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5. Mental Images: Examining the Mind’s Eye
Representations in the mind of an object or event
Not just visual representations but every modality
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6. Concepts: Categorizing the World
Mental groupings of similar objects, events, or people.
Enable us to organize complex phenomena into simpler, usable categories.
Prototypes
Highly representative examples of a concept
Example:
Bird prototype: We think Robin, not Ostrich
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7. Algorithms and Heuristics
Rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem
a² + b² = c²
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8. Algorithms and Heuristics
Thinking strategy that may lead us to a problem or decision.
May lead to errors.
Representativeness heuristic
Rule we apply when we judge people by the degree to which they represent a certain category or group of people
Availability heuristic
Judging the probability of an event on the basis of how easily the event can be recalled from memory
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9. Solving Problems: Tower of Hanoi Puzzle
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10. Solving Problems Preparation: Understanding and Diagnosing Problems
Well-Defined Problem
Both the nature of the problem itself and the information needed to solve it are available and clear
Ill-Defined Problem
Not only the specific nature of the problem is unclear, but the information required to solve the problem is less obvious
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11. Steps in Problem Solving
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12. Solving Problems Preparations: Understanding and Diagnosing Problems
Kinds of Problems:
Arrangement problems
Problems of inducing structure
Transformation problems (e.g., Hanoi Puzzle)
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13. Solving Problems Production: Generating Solutions Means-end Analysis
Involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists
Most frequently applied heuristic in problem solving
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14. Solving Problems Judgment: Evaluating the Solutions
Final stage in problem solving
If solution is less concrete or if there is not a single correct solution, evaluating solutions becomes more difficult.
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15. Solving Problems Impediments to Solutions
Why Is Problem Solving Such a Problem?
Functional Fixedness
Tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use
Mental Set
Tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist
Inaccurate evaluation of solutions
Confirmation bias
Problem solvers favor initial hypotheses and ignore contradictory information that supports alternative hypotheses or solutions
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16. Creativity and Problem Solving
Ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways
Divergent thinking
Ability to generate unusual, yet appropriate, responses to problems or questions
Convergent thinking
Produces responses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic
Cognitive complexity
Preference for elaborate, intricate, and complex stimuli and thinking patterns.
NOT related to intelligence
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17. Thinking Critically and Creatively
Can we learn to be better Thinkers?
Redefine problems
Use subgoals
Adopt a critical perspective
Consider the opposite
Use analogies
Think divergently
Use heuristics
Experiment with various solutions
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18. MODULE 22: Language How do people use language?
How does language develop?
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19. Language
Communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules
A central cognitive ability
Used for communication, thinking, and understanding the world
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20. Grammar: Language’s Language
System of rules that determines how our thoughts can be expressed
Phonology
Smallest basic units of speech
Phonemes
Syntax
Rules that indicate how words and phrases can be combined to form sentences
Semantics
Meanings of words and sentences
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21. Language Development Developing a Way with Words
Babbling (~ 3 months–1 year of age)
Speechlike but meaningless sounds
Critical period
Production of Language (~ 1 year of age)
Telegraphic speech
“I show book” instead of “I show you the book”
Overgeneralization
“He eated the cookie” instead of “He ate the cookie”
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22. Understanding Language Acquisition
Identifying the Roots of Language
Approaches
Learning-theory approach
Following the principles of reinforcement and conditioning
Nativist approach
Universal grammar
Language-acquisition device
Neural system in the human brain
Interactionist approach
Genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach language
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23. The Influence of Language on Thinking:
Do Eskimos Have More Words for Snow Than Texans Do?
Linguistic-relativity hypothesis
Notion that language shapes and, in fact, may determine the way people in a specific culture perceive and understand the world
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24. Teaching with Linguistic Variety
Bilingual Education
Students learn some subjects in native language while simultaneously learning English
Immersion Programs
Students are immediately plunged into foreign language instruction in all subjects
Alternation Model
Biculturalism
An effort to maintain an original cultural identity as well as an integration into an adopted culture
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25. MODULE 23: Intelligence?
What are the different definitions and conceptions of intelligence?
What are the major approaches to measuring intelligence, and what do intelligence tests measure?
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26. MODULE 23: Intelligence?
How can the extremes of intelligence be characterized?
Are traditional IQ tests culturally biased?
To what degree is intelligence influenced by the environment, and to what degree by heredity?
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27. Intelligence
Capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges
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28. Theories of Intelligence
Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence?
g-factor or “g”
General factor for mental ability
Was thought to underlie performance in every aspect of intelligence
Recent theories view intelligence as a multidimensional concept
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29. Major Approaches to Intelligence
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30. Theories of Intelligence
Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence?
Fluid Intelligence
Reflects information-processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory
Crystallized Intelligence
Accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that people learn through experience
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31. Theories of Intelligence
Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence?
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Many ways of showing intelligence
8 Different Forms
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32. Theories of Intelligence
Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence?
Information Processing as Intelligence
Information-processing approach
Way people store material in memory and use that material to solve intellectual tasks
Speed of processing
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33. Theories of Intelligence
Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence?
Practical Intelligence
Related to overall success in living
Emotional Intelligence
Set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions
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34. Distribution of IQ Scores
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35. Assessing Intelligence
Contemporary IQ Tests: Gauging Intelligence
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV (WAIS-IV)
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (WISC-IV)
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36. Assessing Intelligence
Contemporary IQ Tests: Gauging Intelligence
Achievement test
Designed to determine a person’s level of knowledge in a specific subject area
Aptitude test
Designed to predict a person’s ability in a particular area or line of work
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37. Assessing Intelligence
Reliability and Validity: Taking the Measure of Tests
Reliability
Tests measure consistently what they are trying to measure
Validity
Tests actually measure what they are supposed to measure
Norms
Standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person’s score on a test to scores of others
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38. Assessing Intelligence
Adaptive Testing: Using Computers
Adaptive in the sense that the computer individualizes the test to the test-taker
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39. Variations in Intellectual Ability
Mental Retardation (Intellectual Disabilities)
Disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills
Mild = IQ of 55 to 69
Moderate = IQ of 40 to 54
Severe = IQ of 25 to 39
Profound = IQ below 25
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40. Variations in Intellectual Ability
Identifying the Roots of Mental Retardation
Fetal alcohol syndrome
Caused by a mother’s use of alcohol while pregnant
Familial retardation
No apparent biological defect exists but there is a history of retardation in the family
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41. Variations in Intellectual Ability
Integrating Individuals with Mental Retardation
Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975
(Public Law )
Entitled to a full education
Least restrictive environment
Mainstreaming
Full inclusion and educational opportunities
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42. Variations in Intellectual Ability
The Intellectually Gifted
Have IQ scores greater than 130
Accounts for 2–4% of the population
Programs for the gifted are designed to provide enrichment that allow participants’ talents to flourish
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43. Group Differences in Intelligence
Genetic and Environmental Determinants
Background and experiences of test-takers have the potential to affect results
Some standardized IQ tests contain elements that discriminate against minority-group members whose experiences differ from those of the white majority
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44. The Relative Influence of Genetics and Environment
Nature, Nurture, and IQ
Culture-fair IQ Test
One that does not discriminate against the members of any minority group
Heritability
Measure of the degree to which a characteristic can be attributed to genetic, inherited factors
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