1. Stacks & Recursion

2. Stack pushpop LIFO list - only top element is visible top

3. Defining the ADT "Stack" Data: – a linear collection of data items in which all operations occur at one end, called the top Basic Operations: – construct a stack (usually starts empty) – find out if stack is empty – push: add an item on top of the stack – accessing the topmost item Top: retrieve the top item of the stack Pop: remove the top item of the stack

4. Some Implementation choices fixed-size array – capacity (max # elements) decided at compile-time could be too small for expected amount of data could be too large, so space is wasted – size (current # elements used) – fast dynamic array – capacity decided at run-time – size may be less than or equal to the capacity – uses pointers linked list – size changes as needed during program execution – uses pointers

5. Implementation example myTop myArray 7654321076543210 typedef Complx StackElement; const int CAPACITY = 8; int myTop; StackElement myStack[CAPACITY]; Complx X; push(&myStack,X); initially empty (myTop is negative)

6. Nyhoff, ADTs, Data Structures and Problem Solving with C++, Second Edition, © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-140909-3 6 Using the stack - 1 Model with an array – Let position 0 be top of stack Problem … consider pushing and popping – Requires much shifting

7. Nyhoff, ADTs, Data Structures and Problem Solving with C++, Second Edition, © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-140909-3 7 Using the stack - 2 A better approach is to let position 0 be the bottom of the stack Thus our design will include – An array to hold the stack elements – An integer to indicate the top of the stack

8. Addressing the problem Too much or too little space Whatever size you pick, some day, there will be too much data In embedded systems, RAM is a premium Need a dynamic solution (TBD) – Size changes as needed – No waste – Slower when adding new elements

9. The "node" concept a "node" is one element of a stack more than just the data – index of next and/or previous node – trivial for array implementations each node is a struct – data may be a struct INSIDE the node struct struct node {int next; Complx data;}; node myStackNode[CAPACITY];

10. Recursion An alternative to loops

11. What is recursion? a function calls itself – direct recursion a function calls its caller – indirect recursion f f1 f2

12. Recursion-1 Alternative to iteration (looping) – often more "elegant" and concise than a loop – sometimes very inefficient – easier to program than loops Useful when – a problem can be defined in terms of similar sub-problems – eventually reach a "known" answer (base case) Inefficient if duplicate values exist

13. Head vs. Tail Recursion head recursion – requires "deepest" call to complete before any values are known – current stack state must be preserved tail recursion – compiler can "collapse" the stack

14. Head vs. Tail recursion Note: base case is ALWAYS 1st tail(3) is: 3 2 1 void tail(int n) { if(n == 0) return; else printf("tail - n=%i\n",n); tail(n-1); //  } head(3) is: 2 3 void head(int n) { if(n == 1) return; else head(n-1); //  printf("head - n=%i\n",n);); }

15. Caveats Static data is NOT on the "stack" – never gets re-allocated – same values for EVERY call Must have an "exit" – prevent an infinite loop

16. Outline of a Recursive Function if (answer is known) provide the answer & exit else call same function with a smaller version of the same problem base case recursive case

17. Factorial (n) - looping fact (int n) {if (n<0) exit(1); answer=1; for (i=1; i<=n; i++) answer=answer*i; // loop n times return (answer); } This is a simple problem

18. Factorial (n) – head recursive definition: Factorial (n) = n * Factorial (n-1) int Fact (int n) {if (n<0) exit(1); if (n == 0 | n==1) return 1; return n * Fact (n-1); // stack must be saved // cannot do the *'s until last value }

19. Factorial "n" (tail recursive) tail_fact (n, sofar) // set "sofar" same as "n" { if (n == 0 | n==1) return sofar; else // nothing to save on the stack // because it is in the 2 nd parameter return tail_fact (--n, sofar * n); } // here's how to run it printf ("5!=%i",tail_fact(5,5));

20. Keeping track compiler builds code to: – create a new stack pointer and stack space – put local variables & parameters on stack each "return" returns control to caller's next instruction (the inst after the call) returned value, is in caller's stack space – same as ANY function this is called "unwinding"

21. Recursive Call Tree int Fact (int n) { if (n == 0 | n==1) return 1; return n * Fact (n-1); } Fact (4) 3*Fact (2) 4*Fact (3) 2*Fact (1) 24 6 2

22. Fibonacci Series Fibonacci sequence: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, …. n= 1 2 3 4 1 for n <= 2 fib(n) = fib(n-2) + fib(n-1) for n>2 for n=4: fib(2)+fib(3) 1 + 2  3

23. Tracing fib(6) 21 32 4 3 21 5 6 4 21 32 11 1 +

24. Ackermann's function A(0, n) = n + 1 A(m, 1) = A(m+1, 0) A(m+1, n+1) = A(m, A(m+1, n))

25. What Does a Compiler Do? Lexical analysis – divide a stream of characters into a stream of tokens total = cost + 0.08 * cost; if ( ( cond1 && ! cond2 ) ) Parsing – do the tokens form a valid program, – i.e. does it follow the syntax rules? Generate object code

26. BNF (Backus-Naur form) (also called Backus Normal Form) a language used to define the syntax rules of a programming language consists of – productions – rules for forming some construct of the language – meta-symbols – symbols of BNF that are NOT part of the language being compiled – terminals – appear as shown – non-terminals – syntax defined by another production

27. BNF Syntax Rules for a simplified boolean expression – bexpr -> bterm || bexpr | bterm – bterm -> bfactor && bterm | bfactor – bfactor -> !bfactor | (bexpr) | true | false | ident – ident -> alpha { alpha | digit|_} – alpha -> a.. z | A.. Z – digit -> 0.. 9 meta-symbols are in red terminals are in blue non-terminals are in black special rules needed for "|" as part of a language

28. bexpr -> bterm || bterm | bterm What sequence of tokens is a valid bexpr? if (there is a valid bterm) if (nextToken is ||) if (there is a valid bterm) return true else return false else return true else return false Note: tokenizer must watch for the "||" without stopping at the first "|"