1. BOREAS in 1997: Experiment overview, scientific results, and future directions Sellers, P.J., et al. Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 102, No. D24, December 26, 1997.

4. Boreal Forests Encircles the Earth above 48°N Second in areal extent only to tropical forests Occupies 21% of the Earth’s forested land surface Contains 13% of the carbon stored in biomass and 43% of the carbon stored in the soil Expected that warming will be greatest among these higher latitudes (43° – 65°N)

5. Importance of study Large size of forests combined with magnitude of future climate changes could have significant effects  Feedbacks, changes in carbon storage, changes in ecological function of the ecosystem, etc. Our limited understanding of the exchange of energy, water and carbon between the atmosphere and these land surfaces limits our ability to predict these future changes  Also limits the reliability of climate models

6. Interactions between the boreal forest and the atmosphere Physical climate system processes Carbon and biogeochemistry Biophysics Ecology

7. Objectives 1. Improve the process models that describe the exchanges of radiative energy, water, heat, carbon, and trace constituents between the boreal forest and the atmosphere Addressed at local scale (centimeters to a few kilometers) 2. Develop methods for applying the process models over large spatial scales using remote sensing and other integrative modeling techniques Addressed at regional scale (10-1000km) * Need to connect processes at these two scales

8. Multi-scale measurement strategy Multi-scale nested design which permits knowledge at one scale to be translated and compared to that obtained or inferred at different scales

10. Experimental Design Experiments took place over two years, 1994 and 1996 Project included 85 science teams and over 300 scientists Individual projects divided into 6 groups  Airborne fluxes and meteorology  Tower fluxes  Terrestrial ecology  Trace gas biogeochemistry  Hydrology  Remote sensing science

11. Results Section Format Carbon-Water-Energy Fluxes  Small-scale fluxes and physiology with chambers and enclosures  Stand and plot-level carbon-water-energy dynamics  Landscape-scale carbon-water-energy dynamics and surface-atmosphere boundary layer interactions Trace Gas Fluxes  Small-scale fluxes with chambers and enclosures  Stand and plot-level trace gas dynamics with towers Soil and Snow Moisture and Runoff  Point measures and modeling of soil moisture dynamics  Stand-level soil and snow moisture dynamics  Landscape-scale precipitation and soil moisture dynamics Remote Sensing Science  Ground and aircraft measurements of biophysical and optical characteristics and understory and canopy reflectance  Radiative transfer models and algorithm development  Landscape-scale land cover and biophysical characteristics algorithms  Radiation and atmospheric effects

12. Carbon-Water-Energy Fluxes Small-scale fluxes and physiology with chambers and enclosures  Wintertime CO 2 fluxes ranged from 0.5 to 1.0 g CO 2 m -2 d -1 Lowest fluxes correlated with midwinter minimum temperatures Accumulated over the long winter, these fluxes contribute important fraction of the annual carbon budget  Maximum net photosynthesis occurred between 5°C and 8°C Moss and surface net photosynthesis estimated to account for 10- 40% of whole ecosystem uptake and 50-90% of whole ecosystem respiration  Shift from newer to older carbon (measured as CO 2 release) as the winter wore on Suggests deeper soil source  Surface peats and mosses have sequestered an ave.of 40-60 g C m -2 y -1 over the last 90 years Net decomposition in deeper soils released 20-50 g C m -2 y -1 Ave. net soil carbon exchange of +10 to -50 g C m -2 d -1 over the last century Sites can vacillate between source and sink status based on climate variability

13. Carbon-Water-Energy Fluxes (2) Small-scale fluxes and physiology with chambers and enclosures (2)  Deep carbon storage seems to be a function of respiration, decomposition, drainage and fire history Sites had slower decomposition rates due to high soil moisture content and lower temperatures  This results in more carbon accumulation in the soils Deep soil respiration offset 15% of carbon uptake rates in wetlands and 45% in upland sites.  Photosynthetic capacity correlated well with stomatal conductance but decreased less steeply than did PAR through the canopy Good correlation between photosynthetic capacity and remote sensing spectral vegetation indices  Costs of respiration for the whole system estimated at 310-610 g C m -2 y -1 Carbon use efficiency (ratio of net production to net photosynthesis) averaged 0.44, 0.29 and 0.43 for aspen, black spruce, and old jack pine.

14. Schematic summarizing measurement of small- scale fluxes and physiology with chambers

15. Carbon-Water-Energy Fluxes (3) Stand and plot-level carbon-water-energy dynamics  Daily ave. summer albedos 0.083 – conifers 0.15 – aspens 0.20 – grass  Daily ave. winter albedos 0.13 – conifers 0.21 – aspens 0.75 – grass

16. Carbon-Water-Energy Fluxes (4) Stand and plot-level carbon-water-energy dynamics (2)  Conifers characterized by low evaporative fractions (ratio of latent heat to the sum of latent and sensible heat fluxes) and low CO 2 uptake rates during the growing season  Before leaf emergence - most available energy converted to sensible heat flux, after leaf emergence – latent heat flux dominates  Forest canopy conductance directly proportional to forest leaf area index  Transpiration increases with air vapor pressure deficit until about 1 kPa and then remained almost constant with higher deficits  Factors restricting stomatal opening were low soil moisture, limiting atmospheric saturation deficit and low photosynthetic capacity of the needles. For jack pine, 20-40% of total energy exchange originated at the forest floor underneath the sparse canopy

17. Carbon-Water-Energy Fluxes (5) Stand and plot-level carbon-water-energy dynamics (3)  Above a black spruce canopy, evaporation accounted for 43% of net radiation during the growing season  Soil surface respiration accounts for 48-71% of CO2 flux while foliage respiration accounts for 25-43%  Gross photosynthesis largely a function of PAR flux and air temperature with no apparent effects due to high evaporative demand or soil water content  Substantial productivity (carbon uptake) when high water table observed, loss of carbon at drier sites  Above ground net primary productivity for forest sites was 55-310 g C m -2 y -1 30-40% of the ANPP fell to the surface as detritus, 60-70% retained as biomass  LAI ranged from 1.25 for jack pine to 5.6 for black spruce  Fine root net primary productivity ranged from 30 to 115 g C m -2 y -1

18. Cumulative carbon uptake and evapotranspiration rates calculated from measurements above the black spruce canpoy

19. Schematic summarizing measurement of stand and plot-level carbon-water-energy dynamics

20. Carbon-Water-Energy Fluxes (6) Landscape-scale carbon-water-energy dynamics and surface-atmosphere boundary layer interactions  Significant efforts were devoted to correlating airborne fluxes with surface cover types  Explores progressive decoupling of boundary layer fluxes from surface features with increasing height.

21. Schematic summarizing measurements of trace gas fluxes, principally CH 4 and CO

22. Soil and Snow Moisture and Runoff

23. Schematic summarizing measurement of soil and snow moisture runoff

24. Remote Sensing Science

25. Schematic summarizing methods of measurement for remote sensing science

26. Summary

27. Schematic summarizing gains in the physical climate system science due to BOREAS

28. Schematic summarizing gains in the carbon cycle science due to BOREAS

29. Schematic summarizing gains in ecology and remote sensing science due to BOREAS

30. Schematic showing how different elements of BOREAS science could combine to improve the performance and realism of global change models