1. Tritium’s health hazards: why we should be concerned Dr Ian Fairlie Consultant on Radiation in the Environment London United Kingdom

2. Tritium releases from reactor types TBq per GW(e) yr Heavy Water Reactor 670 Pressurised Water Reactor 20 Boiling Water Reactor 2 data source: UNSCEAR (2000)

3. Tritium Release Limits TBq/year (combined liquid and gaseous) COUNTRY Nuclear Power Station TBq /year CanadaDarlington846,000 BelgiumDoel100 Germany All sites 70 NetherlandsBorssele30 UKSizewell8

4. Key Problem official dose per Bq for tritium is very low official dose per Bq for tritium is very low therefore the estimated tritium “doses” are usually tiny therefore the estimated tritium “doses” are usually tiny but the huge tritium releases mean if tritium’s dose estimates are wrong, the health consequences could be serious but the huge tritium releases mean if tritium’s dose estimates are wrong, the health consequences could be serious

5. Tritium doses from inhalation (EU RODOS Model) in mSv 8th Meeting of the IAEA (EMRAS) Tritium & C-14 Working Group May 30 - June 1, 2007 - Bucharest, Romania (http://www.nipne.ro/emras/)

6. Tritium doses from ingestion (EU RODOS Model) in mSv 8th Meeting of the IAEA (EMRAS) Tritium & C-14 Working Group May 30 - June 1, 2007 - Bucharest, Romania (http://www.nipne.ro/emras/)

7. Estimated tritium levels in cow’s milk (EU RODOS Model) HTO Bq/kg 8th Meeting of the IAEA (EMRAS) Tritium & C-14 Working Group May 30 - June 1, 2007 - Bucharest, Romania (http://www.nipne.ro/emras/)

8. Estimated tritium levels in cow’s milk (EU RODOS Model) OBT Bq/kg 8th Meeting of the IAEA (EMRAS) Tritium & C-14 Working Group May 30 - June 1, 2007 - Bucharest, Romania (http://www.nipne.ro/emras/)

9. Tritium concentrations in air near Canadian reactors Bq/m 3 from Osborne RV (2002) Tritium in the Canadian Environment: Levels and Health Effects. Report RSP 0153-1. Prepared for the CNSC.

10. Tritium concentrations in food near Canadian reactors - Bq/l from Osborne RV (2002) Tritium in the Canadian Environment: Levels and Health Effects. Report RSP 0153-1. Prepared for the CNSC.

11. Estimated annual tritium intakes near a Canadian nuclear power station after Osborne, 2002; annual intake values from Health Canada (1994) Tritium source Intake per annum TritiumconcentrationBq/year Water in food 425 litres ~2,000 Bq/L 850,000 Air Inhalation 8,400 m 3 10 Bq/m 3 84,000 Water in drinks 550 litres 100 Bq/L 55,000 Skin absorption 60% of inhalation 10 Bq/m 3 33,000 OBT in food 75 kg ~700 Bq/kg ~53,000 TOTAL~1,000,000

12. Controversy over Tritium’s “Doses” tritium’s dose coefficient is the smallest (by far) of all radionuclides tritium’s dose coefficient is the smallest (by far) of all radionuclides often described as a “weak” emitter, but 2-3 times more hazardous than most gamma/beta emitters often described as a “weak” emitter, but 2-3 times more hazardous than most gamma/beta emitters major misconceptions present major misconceptions present 3 main problems 3 main problems

13. Reports discussing the Controversy Over Tritium Doses 1. AGIR HPA Report (2007) Review of Risks from Tritium 2. Melintescu A, Galeriu D and Takeda H (2007) Reassessment Of Tritium Dose Coefficients For The General Public. Radiat Protect Dosim June 2007, pp. 1–5 3. Fairlie I (2007) RBE and w R values of Auger emitters and low-range beta emitters with particular reference to tritium. Journal of Radiol Prot. Vol 27 pp 157-168 4. US EPA draft White Paper. Modifying EPA Radiation Risk Models Based on BEIR VII. August 1 2006 5. Makhijani A, Smith B, and Thorne MC (2006) Science for the Vulnerable: Setting Radiation and Multiple Exposure Environmental Health Standards to Protect Those Most at Risk. See chapter 7 on tritium. 5. Makhijani A, Smith B, and Thorne MC (2006) Science for the Vulnerable: Setting Radiation and Multiple Exposure Environmental Health Standards to Protect Those Most at Risk. See chapter 7 on tritium. http://www.ieer.org/campaign/report.pdf http://www.ieer.org/campaign/report.pdf

14. What’s Wrong? 1. Wrong radiation weighting factor (w R ) 2. Wrong metabolic/dosimetric models 3. Refusal to acknowledge its hazards

15. 1. Radiation “weighting” (w R ) is Wrong An important issue An important issue UK (AGIR) says w R x 2 UK (AGIR) says w R x 2 US EPA says w R x 2.5 US EPA says w R x 2.5 but ICRP says it won’t change (because of French obsession with fusion research - ITER at Cadarache) but ICRP says it won’t change (because of French obsession with fusion research - ITER at Cadarache)

16. Fairlie I (2007) RBE and w R values of Auger emitters and low-range beta emitters with particular reference to tritium. Journal of Radiological Protection. Vol 27 pp 157-168 Observed RBE values from Fairlie I (2007) RBE and w R values of Auger emitters and low-range beta emitters with particular reference to tritium. Journal of Radiological Protection. Vol 27 pp 157-168

17. 2. Tritium Models are Poor No recognition of tritium levels building up to high levels from chronic exposures No recognition of tritium levels building up to high levels from chronic exposures No consideration of heterogenous distribution of tritium, especially OBT No consideration of heterogenous distribution of tritium, especially OBT OBT badly modelled: experimental animal and human data ignored OBT badly modelled: experimental animal and human data ignored

18. 3. Unusual Tritium Properties unrecognised Extreme mobility in environment (as H 2 O) Extreme mobility in environment (as H 2 O) Rapid uptake in biota, ie humans Rapid uptake in biota, ie humans 60% of atoms in humans are H atoms 60% of atoms in humans are H atoms High atomic exchangeability High atomic exchangeability Ability to bind with organic materials Ability to bind with organic materials 5% in metabolic reactions each day 5% in metabolic reactions each day Short-range beta particle, so damage depends on location in cell, eg near DNA? Short-range beta particle, so damage depends on location in cell, eg near DNA?

19. Overall Result: Tritium’s dose coefficient should be increased x 20 1. Weighting Factor = x 2.5 2. Correct Models = x 4 3. Hazardous Nature = x 2 Therefore need to increase tritium doses by 2.5 x 4 x 2 = 20

20. Precautionary Principle Ie - err on the side of caution Ie - err on the side of caution Do not use scientific uncertainty as excuse for inactivity Do not use scientific uncertainty as excuse for inactivity where there is some evidence of harm – act to reduce or avoid it or warn about it where there is some evidence of harm – act to reduce or avoid it or warn about it

21. Main Conclusions high tritium concentrations in air moisture, food, water near NPPs high tritium concentrations in air moisture, food, water near NPPs therefore high tritium exposures to nearby residents therefore high tritium exposures to nearby residents likely cancers, leukemias (but hard to pick up) likely cancers, leukemias (but hard to pick up)

22. Main Recommendations 1. Use Precautionary Principle 2. Set up permanent health committees on tritium with NGO reps 3. Further epidemiology studies 4. Advise local people 5. Tighten tritium limits

23. Health Recommendations protect the vulnerable and most exposed protect the vulnerable and most exposed pregnant women, nursing mothers, and children (under 4) should not live within 10 km pregnant women, nursing mothers, and children (under 4) should not live within 10 km people within 5 km should not consume food from their gardens, beehives, orchards, and wild foods growing nearby people within 5 km should not consume food from their gardens, beehives, orchards, and wild foods growing nearby

24. Globe and Mail: June 12 2007

25. Useful References Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (2001) Tritium in the Canadian Environment: Levels and Health Effects. Report RSP-0153-1. Prepared for the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission under CNSC contract no. 87055-01-0184 by Ranasara Consultants and Richard Osborne. Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (2001) Tritium in the Canadian Environment: Levels and Health Effects. Report RSP-0153-1. Prepared for the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission under CNSC contract no. 87055-01-0184 by Ranasara Consultants and Richard Osborne. CERRIE (2004) Report of the UK Government’s Committee Examining the Radiation Risks of Internal Emitters. www.cerrie.org CERRIE (2004) Report of the UK Government’s Committee Examining the Radiation Risks of Internal Emitters. www.cerrie.orgwww.cerrie.org Energy Washington Week (2007) “EPA Tritium Risk Plan May Force Tighter Nuclear Plant Controls”, Vol. 4, No. 25, 20 June 2007. Energy Washington Week (2007) “EPA Tritium Risk Plan May Force Tighter Nuclear Plant Controls”, Vol. 4, No. 25, 20 June 2007. Fairlie I (2007) RBE and wR values of Auger emitters and low-range beta emitters with particular reference to tritium. Journal of Radiological Protection. Vol 27 pp 157-168. (2007) http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0952-4746/27/2/003/ Fairlie I (2007) RBE and wR values of Auger emitters and low-range beta emitters with particular reference to tritium. Journal of Radiological Protection. Vol 27 pp 157-168. (2007) http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0952-4746/27/2/003/http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0952-4746/27/2/003/ Greenpeace Canada. (2007) Tritium Hazard Report: Pollution and Radiation Risk from Canadian Nuclear Facilities. http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/canada/en/documents-and-links/publications/tritium-hazard-report-pollu.pdf Greenpeace Canada. (2007) Tritium Hazard Report: Pollution and Radiation Risk from Canadian Nuclear Facilities. http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/canada/en/documents-and-links/publications/tritium-hazard-report-pollu.pdf http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/canada/en/documents-and-links/publications/tritium-hazard-report-pollu.pdf Health Canada (1994) Human Health Risk Assessment for Priority Substances. Ottawa, Canada: Ministry of Supply and Services Canada. Health Canada (1994) Human Health Risk Assessment for Priority Substances. Ottawa, Canada: Ministry of Supply and Services Canada. http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0952-4746/27/2/003/ http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0952-4746/27/2/003/ http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0952-4746/27/2/003/ Hey E (1995) The Precautionary Principle. Where Does It Come From And Where Might It Lead In The Case Of Radioactive Releases To The Environment. In Proceedings of an International Atomic Energy Agency Symposium on The Environmental Impact of Radioactive Releases. 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