1. Part One: Culture and Management
CHAPTER 5
CULTURAL DIMENSIONS AND DILEMMAS
Concept 5.1: Value orientations and dimensions
Concept 5.2: Reconciling cultural dilemmas

2. Societal Culture and Organizations
Culture is the shared values, understandings, assumptions and goals that are learned from earlier generations, imposed by present members of a society and passed on to succeeding generations. It often results in shared attitudes, codes of conduct, and expectations that subconsciously guide and control certain norms of behavior.
As shown in this figure, national and sociocultural variables provide the context for cultural variables, which in turn determine attitudes toward work, time, materialism, individualism, and change. Attitudes affect behavior and, thus, individual’s motivation and expectations regarding work and workplace relations.
© 2008 Pearson

3. Culture
Culture is the shared values, understandings, assumptions and goals that are learned from earlier generations, imposed by present members of a society and passed on to succeeding generations. It often results in shared attitudes, codes of conduct, and expectations that subconsciously guide and control certain norms of behavior.
As shown in this figure, national and sociocultural variables provide the context for cultural variables, which in turn determine attitudes toward work, time, materialism, individualism, and change. Attitudes affect behavior and, thus, individual’s motivation and expectations regarding work and workplace relations.

4. The value-orientation concept
Kluckholn & Strodtbeck define value orientations as
being complex principles
resulting of interaction between 3 elements:
- Cognitive, affective, directive
Three assumptions:
Universal nature of value orientations
Many ways of solving problems
Preferences in choosing solutions

5. Five problems common to all human groupings
Five orientations
Five problems common to all human groupings
Human nature orientation (goodness or badness of human nature)
Man-nature orientation (harmony-with- nature/mastery-over-nature)
Time orientation (past/present/future)
Activity orientation (being, being-in-becoming and doing)
Relational orientation (Man’s relation to other men)

6. How does culture affect organizational processes? Exhibit 5.1
U.S. Culture
Alternative
Function Affected
Individual influences future
Life is preordained
Planning, scheduling
The environment is changeable
People adjust to the environment
Morale, productivity
Hark work leads to success
Wisdom and luck are also needed
Motivation, rewards
Employment can be ended
Employment is for a lifetime
Promotions, recruitment
The extent to which culture affects organizational processes is a subject of debate. Some say that convergence is leading management styles to become more similar to one another due to issues such as industrialization and worldwide coordination. This slide is a condensed version of the information in Exhibit 3-2, and suggests ways that differences between US and other cultures might influence organizational functions.

7. Culture & Organizational Processes
The extent to which culture affects organizational processes is a subject of debate. Some say that convergence is leading management styles to become more similar to one another due to issues such as industrialization and worldwide coordination. This slide is a condensed version of the information in Exhibit 5.1, and suggests ways that differences between US and other cultures might influence organizational functions.

8. Trompenaars’dimensions
Trompenaars goes beyond the framework of anthropology/ sociology
He shows how the following dimensions affect the process of managing cultures:
- relations with other people
- relations with time
- relations with nature
Trompenaars standpoint:
- Each culture has its own specific solutions for universal problems

9. Relations to the others
Seven dimensions
Relations to the others
Universalism vs Particularism
Individualism vs collectivism
Neutral vs affective relationships
Specific vs diffuse relationships
Achievement versus ascription
Relation to time: Sequential/Synchronic
Relation to the environment: Inner vs outer directed.

10. Relations to time and the environment
Table 5.2 Relations to time and the environment
Source: Trompenaars (1993: 8–11) and his other publications

11. Relations to the others
Universalism/Particularism: societal versus personal obligation
Individualism/Collectivism (Communitarianism): personal versus group goals
Neutral/Affective relationships: emotional orientation
Specific/Diffuse relationships: contract versus contact
Achievement/Ascription: legitimating power and status

12. Management dilemmas & dimensions
In practice dilemmas are typically between:
Universalism-Particularism
Legal contracts and loose interpretations
Low cost strategies or premium strategy
Extending rules or discovering exceptions
Individualism- Collectivism (Communitarianism)
Profit or market share strategy
Originating ideas or refining useful products

13. Management’s dilemmas & dimensions (Continued)
3.  Neutral or Affectivity
Long pauses or frequent interruptions
Being professional or engaged
4.  Specific-Diffuse
Data and codification or concepts and models
Being results-oriented or process- oriented
5.  Achieved or ascribed status
Pay for performance or vindication for worth
Head-hunting or developing in-house

14. Management’s dilemmas & dimensions (Continued)
6.  Sequential or synchronic time
Highly rational, standardized production or Just-in-time production
Keeping to schedule or being easily distracted
7.  Inner or outer directed
Strategically oriented or fusion oriented
Dauntless entrepreneur or public benefactor

15. Trompenaars versus Hofstede dimensions
The nature of Trompenaars’ dimensions and Hofstede dimensions is very different in approach:
Trompenaars:
cultures are more like circles with ‘preferred arcs joined together’
seen as a ‘model-to-learn-with’
Hofstede:
- linear forms where cultures are positioned high or low or in the middle.
- seeking ‘the perfect model’

16. Reconciling cultural dilemmas
The dilemmas in each of the seven dimensions require some kind of resolution.
Trompenaars’ methodology aims to reconcile what appear to be opposing values within the dimensions.
Cultures are seen as ‘dancing’ from one preferred end of a dimension to another.

17. Hofstede’s Dimensions
Power distance
Low: Denmark, Israel, Austria
High: Malaysia, Arab countries, Mexico
Uncertainty avoidance
Low: India, Denmark, Singapore
High: Greece, Japan, France
Hofstede’s research, which was conducted prior to the GLOBE project, is based on 116,000 people in 50 countries. Nonetheless, all of the research was conducted in a single firm—IBM. As such, the result should be interpreted with caution.
Power distance is a society’s acceptance of unequal power distribution. In high power distance cultures, formal authority and hierarchy are very respected. Thus leadership tends to be autocratic and centralized. In low power distance cultures superiors and subordinates are more likely to view one another as equals, leading to more cooperation.
Uncertainty avoidance is the extent to which people feel threatened by ambiguous situations. High uncertainty avoidance cultures are very uncomfortable with ambiguity and tend to have strict laws and closely followed procedures. In businesses, managers tend to make low-risk decisions, employees are not aggressive, and lifetime employment is common. Low uncertainty avoidance cultures are more comfortable with ambiguity. In these cultures, company activities are less formal and structured, managers take more risks, and employees have more job mobility.

18. Hofstede’s Dimensions
Individualism vs. collectivism
Individual: Australia, US, UK
Collective: Italy, Korea, Singapore
Individualism is the tendency for people to look after themselves and their immediate families only and to neglect the needs of society. Democracy, individual initiative, and achievement are valued. Collectivism entails tight social frameworks, emotional dependence on the organization, and strong belief in group decisions. Countries scoring higher on individualism tend to have higher GNPs and freer political systems. Social loafing is more common in individual than in collective cultures.
Individualism is the tendency for people to look after themselves and their immediate families only and to neglect the needs of society. Democracy, individual initiative, and achievement are valued. Collectivism entails tight social frameworks, emotional dependence on the organization, and strong belief in group decisions. Countries scoring higher on individualism tend to have higher GNPs and freer political systems. Social loafing is more common in individual than in collective cultures.
Masculinity refers to the degree to which traditionally masculine values (e.g., assertiveness, materialism, and lack of concern for others) prevail. Femininity emphasizes the traditionally feminine values of concern for others, relationships, and quality of life. In more feminine cultures one tends to find less work-family conflict, less job stress, more women in high-level jobs, and a reduced need for assertiveness.

19. Hofstede’s Dimensions
Masculinity vs. femininity
Masculine: Japan, Mexico, Germany
Feminine: Denmark, Sweden, New Zealand
Masculinity refers to the degree to which traditionally masculine values (e.g., assertiveness, materialism, and lack of concern for others) prevail. Femininity emphasizes the traditionally feminine values of concern for others, relationships, and quality of life. In more feminine cultures one tends to find less work-family conflict, less job stress, more women in high-level jobs, and a reduced need for assertiveness.

20. Hofstede’s Dimensions
Long-term/short-term orientation
Long-term: China, Japan, Taiwan
Short-term: US, Canada, UK
Long-term orientation is the extent to which people accept delayed gratification of material, social, and emotional needs. These cultures focus on long-term goals, investment in the future, and are prepared to sacrifice short-term profit.
It is important to note that Hofstede’s value dimensions are interdependent and interactive.
Long-term orientation is the extent to which people accept delayed gratification of material, social, and emotional needs. These cultures focus on long-term goals, investment in the future, and are prepared to sacrifice short-term profit.
It is important to note that Hofstede’s value dimensions are interdependent and interactive.

21. Trompenaar’s Dimensions
Universalism vs. particularism
Universal: USA, Germany, Sweden
Particular: Japan, Spain, China
Universalistic cultures apply rules and systems objectively,
without consideration of individual circumstances. Particularistic cultures
tend to put more emphasis on relationships and apply rules more
subjectively.
Neutral vs. affective
Neutral: Japan, UK, Germany
Affective: Spain, Italy, China
Affective cultures tend to express emotions openly, whereas neutral cultures do not.
Trompenaar’s research gathered data from 15,000 managers from 28 countries, representing 47 national cultures. Some of these are similar to other dimensions already discussed, and are not addressed here.
Universalistic cultures apply rules and systems objectively, without consideration of individual circumstances. Particularistic cultures tend to put more emphasis on relationships and apply rules more subjectively.
Affective cultures tend to express emotions openly, whereas neutral cultures do not.

22. Trompenaar’s Dimensions
Specific vs. diffuse
Specific: UK, US, France
Diffuse: Sweden, Spain, China
People in specific cultures compartmentalize their work and private lives, and they are more open and direct. In diffuse cultures work spills over into personal relationships and vice versa
Achievement vs. ascription
Achievement: US, UK, Sweden
Ascription: Spain, Japan, China
In achievement-oriented cultures individual achievement is the source
of status and influence. In ascription-oriented cultures status and
influence come from class, age, gender, etc.
People in specific cultures compartmentalize their work and private lives, and they are more open and direct. In diffuse cultures work spills over into personal relationships and vice versa.
In achievement-oriented cultures individual achievement is the source of status and influence. In ascription-oriented cultures status and influence come from class, age, gender, etc.

23. How does reconciliation work?
The process of reconciliation leads to a dynamic equilibrium between seemingly opposed values, which make up a dilemma.
There are different alternatives:
1. processing: a dilemma is made into two processes.
2. contextualising: what is text and what is context.
3. sequencing: every process of reconciliation is a sequence.
4. synergizing: adding the word through between the two opposite alternative orientations.

24. Conclusion Chapter 5
The Trompenaars’ dimensions reflect the value-orientation concept proposed by Kluckholn and Strodtbeck.
The cross-cultural manager has to face universal dilemmas, but the way they are resolved is culturally determined.
Rather than the dimensions themselves, it is the concept of reconciliation which distinguishes the work of Trompenaars (and Hampden-Turner) from that of Hofstede.