1. Macroeconomic Adjustment and Structural Reform An Overview Thorvaldur Gylfason

2. Outline Micro Microeconomics of supply and demand  Examples from agriculture and computers Macro Macroeconomics of aggregate supply and demand Macroeconomic adjustment Policy application: Macroeconomic adjustment through aggregate demand management  Monetary and fiscal policy; exchange rates Structural reforms Structural reforms on the supply side

3. Introduction Micro Microeconomics: Alfred Marshall 1890  Allocation of scarce resources among alternative uses  Determination of prices by demand and supply in markets  Different market structures Competition, oligopoly, monopoly Economics: Adam Smith 1776

4. Macroeconomics John Maynard Keynes 1936  One of the chief architects of the IMF Structure and functioning of national and international economy Determination of national income, economic growth, unemployment, inflation, exchange rates, external debt, etc. Grew out of the Great Depression 1929-39 macroeconomic problems  Microeconomics not well suited to deal with macroeconomic problems

5. Microeconomics in action Price Quantity Supply Demand P*P* Q*Q* Equilibrium

6. Excess demand Price Quantity Supply Demand Excess demand Equilibrium

7. Excess supply Price Quantity Supply Demand Excess supply Equilibrium

8. Economic models Exogenous variables Endogenous variables Model Change in technology or weather Demand for and supply of food Price and quantity of food

9. Application to agriculture Price Quantity Supply (elastic) Demand (inelastic) Equilibrium

10. Application to agriculture Price Quantity Supply (elastic) Demand (inelastic) Income of farmers

11. Application to agriculture Price Quantity Supply before Demand (inelastic) Supply after Technological progress A B

12. Application to agriculture Price Quantity Supply before Demand (inelastic) Supply after A B Technological progress Income of farmers after technical change

13. The farm problem No coincidence that agriculture has economic problems all over the the world Technological progress lowers production costs and prices without inducing a significant increase in food consumption  because food demand is constrained by people’s biological need for a fixed number of calories per day Therefore, farm incomes fall!

14. Computers: Another story Price Quantity Supply Demand (elastic)

15. Computers: Another story Price Quantity Supply before Demand (elastic) Supply after A B Technological progress

16. Computers: Another story Price Quantity Supply before Demand (elastic) Supply after A B Loss Gain Producers and consumers both gain from technological progress

17. Macroeconomics in action: Aggregate supply Price level GNP Aggregate supply An increase in prices induces producers to produce more, so that aggregate supply increases

18. Aggregate demand Price level GNP Aggregate demand An increase in prices induces consumers to buy less, so that aggregate demand decreases

19. Macroeconomic equilibrium Price level GNP Aggregate supply Aggregate demand P*P* Y*Y* Equilibrium

20. Excess demand Price level GNP Aggregate supply Aggregate demand Equilibrium Excess demand drives prices up, as in Eastern Europe in the 1990s Excess demand

21. Excess supply Price level GNP Aggregate supply Aggregate demand Equilibrium Excess supply drives prices down, as in America in the 1930s Excess supply

22. Experiment: Export boom Price level GNP AS AD

23. Export boom Price level GNP AS AD AD’ A B Exports increase

24. Export boom Price level GNP AS AD Excess demand drives prices up AD’ A B C

25. Export boom Price level GNP AS AD AD’ A B As the price level rises, so does GNP along the upward-sloping AS curve

26. Comments on experiment X An export boom stimulates aggregate demand because Y = C + I + G + X - Z Therefore, all other comparable boosts to aggregate demand will have same effect: C  Consumption C (e.g., through lower taxes) I  Investment I (e.g., via lower interest rates) G  Government spending G GNP will rise when AD increases  as long as AS curve slopes up

27. An interpretation Exogenous variables Endogenous variables Model Export boom or investment boom Aggregate demand and supply Price level and GNP

28. Economic policy Economic policy instruments  Exogenous variables Fiscal policy Fiscal policy: Government spending, taxes Monetary policy Monetary policy: Money, credit, interest rates Exchange rate policy Exchange rate policy: Exchange rate (if fixed) Economic objectives or targets  Endogenous variables GNP level or growth Price level or inflation Employment, unemployment BOP, exchange rate (if flexible), external debt

29. Aims of economic policy Apply policy instruments to attain given economic objectives E.g., by conducting monetary and fiscal policy in order to strengthen the BOP financial programming  Key to financial programming Not only crisis management in short run Also, important to conduct policy so as to foster rapid, sustainable economic growth  Key to economic and social prosperity

30. Macroeconomic adjustment and structural reform aggregate demand Begin with aggregate demand  Show how it depends on G, t, M, e aggregate supply Then add aggregate supply  Show how it depends on structural reforms Then add balance of payments Then make policy experiments  Assess the effects of policy measures on macroeconomic outcomes

31. Aggregate demand Y = C + I + G + X – Z C = c(Y-T) = (1-s)(1-t)Y  Where s = saving rate and t = tax rate I = k(M/P)  Through r (real interest rate) G = exogenous X = aY* – bR Z = mY + cR  Where R = eP/P* (real exchange rate) am a and m reflect income elasticities bc b and c reflect price elasticities Decrease in R means depreciation

32. Aggregate demand k Y = (1-s)(1-t)Y + k(M/P) + G + (aY* – b(eP/P*)) – (mY + c(eP/P*))  Which means: Y = F(P; M, G, t, e; Y*, P*) – + + – – + + Aggregate demand schedule slopes down Aggregate demand schedule slopes down real exchange rate  Via real balances and the real exchange rate... and shifts in response to changes in exogenous variables, including policy

33. Aggregate supply Y = F(N) N = N(W/P)  Labor demand varies inversely with real wages Y = F(W/P) – or, equivalently, Y = F(P; W) + – Aggregate supply schedule slopes up Aggregate supply schedule slopes up real wages  Through real wages... and shifts in response to changes in exogenous variables, including wages

34. Aggregate supply Y N W/P N Labor demand Production function An increase in the real wage reduces employment and output. A B A B

35. Macroeconomic equilibrium Price level GNP AS AD M up; G up; t down; e down W up

36. Monetary or fiscal expansion Price level GNP AS AD M up; G up; t down A B An increase in M or G or a decrease in t increases both Y and P for given W. AD’

37. An increase in wages Price level GNP AS AD W up AS’ A B An increase in W increases P, but reduces Y. An increase in the price of imported oil has the same effect.

38. Devaluation Price level GNP AS AD e down W up AD’ AS’ A B When e decreases, W often also rises, so that P increases, but Y may either rise or fall. Even if W stays put, AS will shift to the left as devaluation raises the price of oil and other imported inputs.

39. Effects of demand management and supply shocks: Overview GtMeW Y+-+ - (?) - P+-+-+

40. Balance of payments B = X – Z + F X = aY* – bR Z = mY + cR R = eP/P* F = exogenous B = F(Y, P; e, F; Y*, P*) – – – + + + To reduce deficit in the balance of payments monetaryfiscal restraint  Must apply monetary or fiscal restraint to decrease Y or P or decrease e (devaluation) or increase F (capital inflow).

41. Price level GNP AS AD Balance of payments adjustment A Suppose, at A, there is a deficit in the balance of payments (B  0) Then, to reduce deficit, must reduce M or G or raise t to reduce demand (shift AD left) M or G down, t up e down, F up End result is still point A, but now with balance of payments equilibrium (B = 0). Level of GNP is unchanged, but its composition has changed. Can offset decrease in aggregate demand by increasing e or F

42. Price level GNP AS AD Macroeconomic adjustment and structural reform A Start, at A, with a deficit in the balance of payments (B  0) Then, to reduce deficit, try to stimulate supply (shift AS right) in addition to reducing demand M or G down, t up End result is point E with balance of payments equilibrium (B = 0). Level of GNP is unchanged, but its composition has changed. Price level is lower. Stimulate supply side by liberalization, stabilization, privatization, etc. E AS’ AD’

43. Conclusion The End financial programming monetaryfiscalstructural The essence of financial programming is to find the right combination of monetary, fiscal, and structural policy measures that improve the balance of payments... ... without damaging other important macroeconomic variables, including output and employment. good for growth. Theory and experience indicate that such measures are generally good for growth. These slides will be posted on my website: www.hi.is/~gylfason