1. Language and Gender
Differences between male and female speech noticed some time ago
Not studied systematically until recently
Some are very obvious – pronouns
Other differences are discovered by sociolinguistic research

2. Some gender differences
Reports of different male and female languages usually exaggerated
differences in language shift
different dialects or accents
marrying out

3. Japanese Japanese different phonology, morphology and vocabulary
supposedly reflect the role of women as polite, gentle, passive

4. continued Women’s form -- men’s form (traditional Japanese)
Otoosan oyaji (father)
Onaka hara (stomach)
Taberu kuu (eat)

5. Hlonipha
Hlonipha
Xhosa-speaking women must avoid syllables in their in-laws’ names
replaced with deletions, paraphrase, loan words

6. continued Respect for husband’s family inferior status of women
Result – a lot words used only by women

7. Language and gender in English
English – differences less obvious --phonological
Linked to social class
studies of language and social class also showed gender differences
Applies in many places in UK, US, Australia, new Zealand

8. continued In NYC women used post-vocalic /r/ more often
Norwich – women used –ing, men used –in more often
Tyneside men used glottalised –p more often

9. continued Verbal duelling – typically masculine
Yo momma – white chicks
Rap battles – Eight Mile
Turkish rhymed insults
English football chants

10. Gender and Language change
Studies of linguistic change in Norwich, Engliand and Belfast, N Ireland
Men lead change from below
vernacular forms spread upwards – glottalisation in British English

11. continued Women lead change from above Introduce standard forms
Mrs Hall rather than Mizall in Leeds

12. Language and networks
Belfast – women worked outside community – introduced new forms from outside
Similar pattern among African Americans in South Carolina islands

13. Language and Identity
Language used to express identity but gender variation
“Jocks” and “Burnouts” in Detroit suburban high schools
identified with suburbs and city
Gender differences

14. continued
Burnout girls adopted urban rather than suburban forms but less than boys
Occasionally used taboo words in single sex groups
Boys frequently
Jock boys used taboo words in SSGs but not in front of women

15. Explanations of gender difference
Attempt to acquire social status by using standard forms – probably true of NYC
Women forced to use distinctive forms as a sign of inferiority –Xhosa
Women as guardians of cultural values –unlikely to explain interaction with children

16. continued
Standard forms are considered polite – politeness is not required of superior groups
Expression of machismo
Gender sorting at a young age – differences appear at 6 in some cases
Probably all true in different degrees in different places

17. Language and discourse
Men talk more than women, especially in public
Men interrupt women more than vice-versa
Women are more supportive of other speakers

18. continued Women more likely to use hedges
Men more likely to use boosters
Women more likely to use compliments
But problems of method and bias

19. Language and Discourse
Why is there no ‘K’ in J.K. Rowling’s birth certificate

20. Sexist language Masculine gender to include women
Negative connotations of feminine words
Master -- mistress
Working girl
Sir – madam
Wizard – witch
Many words for sexually promiscuous women
But rent boy, toy boy

21. Non-sexist language Movement especially in US He becomes he or she
Fireman – firefighter
Policeman – police officer
Mrs/miss becomes ms

22. Explanations Physical – may explain intonation but not much else
Genetic – unpopular until recently --but research by Baron-Cohen – differences in male and female brains – systems vs relationships

23. continued Social/ cultural
Will explain many cases – group identity, social mobility, discrimination
but why so widespread?