1. Morality – How do we choose?
HU300

2. Moral Reasoning Considering certain kinds of reasons: moral reasons
Trying to arrive at the best moral reasons for acting
Choosing the morally right course of action

3. Ethical Relativism
Ethical relativism: Moral truths are not absolutely true but true relative to some particular standards.
Cultural relativism: Moral truths are not absolutely true but are relative to a particular society.
Whether an act is right or wrong depends on the moral norms of society and not on an absolute standard.
Individual relativism: Moral truths are not absolute but relative to individuals.
Whether an act is right or wrong depends on the convictions of the person performing it and not on an absolute standard.

4. Ethics and Morality
Ethics is defined as the study of morality, which raises two questions: (a) What is morality? (b) What is the study of morality?
Morality can be defined as: a system of rules for guiding human conduct, and principles for evaluating those rules.
Two points are worth noting in this definition: i) morality is a system; (ii) it is a system comprised of moral rules and principles.
There are two kinds of rules of conduct:
1) Directives for guiding our conduct as individuals (at the micro-level)
2) Social Policies framed at the macro-level.
The rules of conduct in a moral system are evaluated by way of standards called principles. For example, the principle of "social utility," promoting the greatest good for the greatest number.

5. Basic Components of a Moral System
Principles of Evaluation
(Evaluative standards used
to justify rules of conduct)
Rules of Conduct
(Action-guiding rules, in the form of either directives or social policies)
Examples include principles such as of social utility and justice as fairness
Two Types
Rules for guiding the actions of individuals (micro-level ethical rules)
Rules for establishing
social policies
(macro-level ethical rules)
Examples include directives such as:"Do not steal“ and
"Do not harm others."
Examples include social policies such as:
"Software should be protected“ and "Privacy should be respected."

6. Four Features of Moral Systems
Public
The rules are known to all of the members.
Informal
The rules are informal, not like formal laws in a legal system.
Rational
The system is based on principles of logical reason accessible to all its members.
Impartial
The system is not partial to any one group or individual.

7. Components of a Moral System
Grounds for justifying moral principles
Religion Philosophy Law
Principles of valuation
Rules of Conduct
Moral principles and rules
Source of moral rules
Core Values

8. The Role of Values in a Moral System
The term value comes from the Latin valere, which translates roughly into having worth or being of worth. Examples include: very general notions such happiness, love, freedom, etc.
Philosophers distinguish between two types of values: intrinsic and instrumental values.
Any value that serves some further end or good is called an instrumental value because it is tied to some external standard.
Automobiles, computers, and money are goods that have instrumental value.
Values such as life and happiness are intrinsic because they are valued for their own sake.

9. Three Schemes for Grounding the Evaluative Rules in a Moral System
The principles are grounded in one of three different kinds of schemes:
Religion- Stealing is wrong because it offends God or because it violates one of God's (Ten) Commandments.
Law- Stealing is wrong because it violates the law.
Philosophical Ethics- Stealing is wrong because it is wrong (independent of any form of external authority or external sanctions).
In the case of both law and religion, specific sanctions against stealing exists in the form of punishment.
In the case of (philosophical) ethics, the only sanction would be in the form of social disapprobation (disapproval) and possibly social ostracism. (No punishment in a formal sense.)

10. Ethicists vs. Moralists
Ethicists study morality from the perspective of philosophical methodology; they appeal to logical arguments to justify their positions.
Moralists often claim to have all of the answers regarding morality. Some moralists may have a particular moral agenda to advance.

11. Summary of Logical Flaws in the Discussion Stoppers
People disagree on solutions to moral issues.
1. Fails to recognize that experts in many areas disagree on key issues in their fields.
2. Fails to recognize that there are many moral issues on which people agree.
3. Fails to distinguish between disagreements about principles and disagreements about facts.
Stopper #2
Who am I to judge others?
1. Fails to distinguish between the act of judging and being a judgmental person.
2. Fails to distinguish between judging as condemning and judging as evaluating.
3. Fails to recognize that sometimes we are required to make judgments
Stopper #3
Ethics is simply a private matter.
1. Fails to recognize that morality is essentially a public system.
2. Fails to note that personally based morality can cause major harm to others.
3. Confuses moral choice with individual or personal preferences.
Stopper #4
Morality is simply a matter for individual cultures to decide.
1. Fails to distinguish between descriptive and normative claims about morality.
2. Assumes that people can never reach common agreement on some moral principles.
3. Assumes that a system is moral because a majority in a culture decides it is moral.

12. The Structure of Ethical Theories
In science, theory provides us with some general principles and structures to analyze our data.
The purpose of ethical theory, like scientific theory, is to provide us with a framework for analyzing moral issues.
Ideally, a good theory should be coherent, consistent, comprehensive, and systematic.

13. Niccoló Machiavelli

14. Machiavelli 1469-1527 Early life Grew up in Florence
Bureaucrat for 14 years
Diplomat under Lorenzo de Medici
Part of the ruling council after Savonarola
Put in prison and exiled when the Medici returned to power
Tried but never regained favor
Rejected by ensuing Republican governments

15. Machiavelli The Prince Written to the Medici family (while in exile)
Handbook on how to be a prince
Concepts and exploits of Césare Borgia

16. What is the role of a prince? What should he do?
Examples?
All this can best be guaranteed if the government is stable.
What is the worst condition of a state?
Therefore, the most important role of a prince is to guarantee stability.

17. Summary of a Prince's Duties
Maintain stability
Minimize change
Use virtue as required
Be good or not depending on the situation
Be liberal or stingy as required for the moment

18. Loved or Feared?
“Is it better to be loved than feared, or the reverse? The answer is that it is desirable to be both, but because it is difficult to join them together, it is much safer for a prince to be feared than loved, if he is to fail in one of the two. Because we can say this about men in general: they are ungrateful, changeable, simulators and dissimulators, runaways in danger, eager for gain: while you do well by them they are all yours…”
--Machiavelli, The Prince

19. Proper Use of Fear
“Nevertheless, the wise prince makes himself feared in such a way that, if he does not gain love, he escapes hated; because to be feared and not to be hated can well be combined; this he will always achieve if he refrains from the property of his citizens and his subjects and from their women.”
--Machiavelli, The Prince

20. Summary of a Prince's Duties
Maintain stability
Minimize change
Use virtue as required
Be good or not depending on the situation
Be liberal or stingy as required for the moment
Be loved and feared, but favor being feared

21. Summary of a Prince's Duties
Maintain stability
Minimize change
Use virtue as required
Be good or not depending on the situation
Be liberal or stingy as required for the moment
Be loved and feared, but favor being feared
Know when to keep a promise

22. Appearances are Useful
“For a prince, then, it is not necessary actually to have all the above-mentioned qualities, but it is very necessary to appear to have them. Further, I shall be so bold as to say this: that if he has them and always practices them, they are harmful; and if he appears to have them, they are useful.”
--Machiavelli, The Prince

23. Appearances are useful
"Every one sees what you seem, but few know what you are."
– Machiavelli, The Prince

24. Summary of a Prince's Duties
Maintain stability
Minimize change
Use virtue as required
Be good or not depending on the situation
Be liberal or stingy as required for the moment
Be loved and feared, but favor being feared
Know when to keep a promise
Appear to have good qualities

25. Adjust to Meet Circumstances
“Therefore he must have a mind ready to turn in any direction as Fortunes’ winds and the variability of affairs require, yet, as I said above, he holds to what is right when he can but knows how to do wrong when he must.”
--Machiavelli, The Prince

26. Summary of a Prince's Duties
Maintain stability
Minimize change
Use virtue as required
Be good or not depending on the situation
Be liberal or stingy as required for the moment
Be loved and feared, but favor being feared
Know when to keep a promise
Appear to have good qualities
Hold to right when possible but do wrong if required
Realize that the end will justify the means

27. Four Ethical Theories Consequence-based Duty-based Contract-based
Character-based

28. Jeremy Bentham 1748-1832 Bentham believed that we should try
to increase the overall amount of pleasure in the world.

29. Basic Insights of Utilitarianism The purpose of morality is to make the world a better place. Morality is about producing good consequences, not having good intentions
We should do whatever will bring the most benefit (i.e., intrinsic value) to all of humanity.

30. The Purpose of Morality The utilitarian has a very simple answer to the question of why morality exists at all:
–The purpose of morality is to guide people’s actions in such a way as to produce a better world.
Consequently, the emphasis in utilitarianism is on consequences, not intentions.

31. Fundamental Imperative
The fundamental imperative of utilitarianism is: Always act in the way that will produce the greatest overall amount of good in the world.
–The emphasis is clearly on consequences, not intentions.

32. Example: Debating the school lunch program
Utilitarians would have to calculate:
–Benefits •Increased nutrition for x number of children •Increased performance, greater long-range chances of success •Incidental benefits to contractors, etc.
–Costs •Cost to each taxpayer •Contrast with other programs that could have been funded and with lower taxes (no program)
–Multiply each factor by •Number of individuals affected •Intensity of effects

33. Consequence-based Ethical Theories
Some argue that the primary goal of a moral system is to produce desirable consequences or outcomes for its members.
On this view, the consequences (i.e., the ends achieved) of actions and policies that provide the ultimate standard against which moral decisions must be evaluated.
So if choosing between acts A or B, the morally correct action will be the one that produces the most desirable outcome.
In determining the best outcome, we can ask the question, whose outcome?
Utilitarians argue that it is the consequences of the greatest number of individuals, or the majority, in a given society that deserve consideration in moral deliberation.
Utilitarians draw on two key points in defending their theory:
(i) the principle of social utility should be used to determine morality;
(ii) the belief that social utility can be measured by the amount of happiness produced.

34. Duty-based Ethical Theories
Kant rejects utilitarianism in particular, and all consequentialist ethical theories in general.
He points out that, in some instances, performing our duties may result in our being unhappy and may not necessarily lead to consequences that are considered desirable.
Theories in which the notion of duty or obligation serve a foundation for morality are called deontological theories because they derive their meaning from the Greek root deon, which means duty.
Duty-based Ethical Theories
Immanuel Kant argued that morality must ultimately be grounded in the concept of duty or obligations that humans have to one another.
For Kant, morality can never be grounded in the consequences of human actions.
Thus, in Kant’s view, morality has nothing to do with the promotion of happiness or the achievement of desirable consequences.
Kant rejects utilitarianism in particular, and all consequentialist ethical theories in general.
He points out that, in some instances, performing our duties may result in our being unhappy and may not necessarily lead to consequences that are considered desirable.
Theories in which the notion of duty or obligation serve a foundation for morality are called deontological theories because they derive their meaning from the Greek root deon, which means duty.

35. Duty-based Ethical Theories (Continued)
Kant defends his ethical theory on the grounds that:
(1) humans are rational, autonomous agents;
(2) human beings are ends-in-themselves, and not means to ends.
Rule Deontology
Kant's imperative has a number of variations, one of which directs us to:
Act always on that maxim or principle (or rule) which ensures that all individuals will be treated as ends-in-themselves and never merely as a means to an end.

36. Contract-based Ethical Theories
From the perspective of social-contract theory, a moral system comes into being by virtue of certain contractual agreements between individuals.
One of the earliest versions of a contract-based ethical theory can be found in the writings of Thomas Hobbes.

37. Summary of Four Types of Ethical Theory
Type of Theory
Advantages
Disadvantages
Consequence-based (Utilitarian)
Stresses promotion of happiness and utility
Ignores concerns of justice for the minority population
Duty-based (Deontology)
Stresses the role of duty and respect for persons
Underestimates the importance of happiness and social utility
Contract-based (Rights)
Provides a motivation for morality
Offers only a minimal morality
Character-based (Virtue)
Stresses moral development and moral education
Depends on homogeneous community standards for morality

38. End