1. Properties of Solutions: Ways of Expressing Concentrations
Weight percentage
= mass of component in solution
x 100
total mass of solution
Parts per million (ppm)
= mass of component in solution
x 106
total mass of solution
A solution is made containing 6.9 g NaHCO3 per 100 g water. What is the weight percentage of solute in the solution? A 2.5 g sample of ground water was found to contain 5.4 micrograms of Zn2+. What is the concentration of Zn2+ in ppm
6.9g
Wt % of component =
x 100 = 6.5%
106.9 g
5.4 x 10-6
ppm =
x 106
= 2.2ppm
2.5 g

2. Mole fraction, Molarity , and Molality
Mole fraction of a component =
Moles component
Total moles of all components
Calculate the mole fraction of HCl in a solution of HCl containing 36% HCl by weight.
1 mole HCl
36 g HCl
= 0.99 mol HCl
36.5 g HCl
1 mole H2O
= 3.6 mol H2O
64 g H2O
18 g H2O
Mole HCl
0.99 mol
XHCl = =
= 0.22
4.6 mol
Moles HCl + H2O

3. Mole fraction, Molarity , and Molality
Moles of solute
Molarity =
Liters of solution
What is the molarity of an ascorbic acid solution (C6H8O6) prepared by dissolving
1.80 grams in enough water to make 125 mL of solution. How many milliliters of this
solution contain mol ascorbic acid.
1 mol C6H8O6
= mol C6H8O6
1.80 g C6H8O6
176 g C6H8O6
mol C6H8O6
Molarity =
= M
.125 L soln

4. Mole fraction, Molarity , and Molality
Molality = moles of solute
Kg of solvent
What is the molality of a solution made by dissolving 5.0 g of toluene (C7H8) in 25 g of benzene (C6H6)?
1 mol C7H8
5.0 g C7H8
= mol C7H8
92 g C7H8
0.054 mol C7H8
Molality =
= 2.2 m
.025 kg C6H6

5. Solvation or hydration
Properties of Solutions: The Solution Process
Solvation or hydration
Cl-
Na+
Na+ -
Na+ +
Cl- -
Cl- -
Na+ +
Na+ +
Cl- -
Na+ +
Cl-
Cl-
Cl-

6. Properties of Solutions: The Solution Process
Energy Changes and Solution Formation
Solute-solute interactions
Solvent-solvent interactions
Solute-solvent interactions
 Hsoln =  H1 +  H2 +  H3

7. Properties of Solutions: The Solution Process
Energy Changes and Solution Formation
NaOH:  Hsoln =
NH4OH:  Hsoln = 26.4
The overall change in enthalpy can be exo- or endothermic
This explains why “like dissolves like”

8. Properties of Solutions: Solution Formation, Spontaneity
and Disorder…WHY DOES THIS STUFF DISSOLVE?
London dispersion forces
bp = 77
bp = 69
Little energy is exchanged

9. Properties of Solutions: Solution Formation, Spontaneity
and Disorder…WHY DOES THIS STUFF DISSOLVE?
Processes in which the energy content of the system decreases tend to occur
spontaneously.
Processes in which the disorder of the system increases tend to occur spontaneously
When molecules of different types are brought together, an increase in disorder occurs
spontaneously unless the molecules are restrained sufficiently by strong intermolecular
forces. Salt does not dissolve in gasoline because strong forces are holding the Na+ and
Cl- ions together and the intermolecular forces associated with nonpolar substances is
not sufficient to dislodge them.

10. Properties of Solutions: Saturated Solutions and Solubilityc
As solid solute begins to dissolve in a solvent, the concentrations of solute particles
in solution increases, so the chances of their colliding with the surface of the solid
increases. This may lead to crystallization.
Saturated: a solution with undissolved
solute
dissolve
Solute + Solvent  Solution
crystallize
Supersaturated: a solution which contains
a greater amount of solute than needed to
form a saturated solution

11. Properties of Solutions: Factors Affecting Solubility
As a rule, solubility increases with increasing molecular mass
Polar liquids tend to dissolve in polar solvents. If the dissolve they are miscible.
If they do not dissolve they are immiscible

12. Properties of Solutions: Factors Affecting Solubility
Hydrogen-boning interactions between solute and solvent may lead to high solubility
Because of H-bonding, solute-solute, solvent-solvent, and solute-solvent
interactions are not appreciably different.
Ethanol and ethanol
Ethanol and water
There is no significant change in the environment

13. Properties of Solutions: Factors Affecting Solubility
However, the numbers carbon atoms in an alcohol does effect it solubility in water.
As the length of the chain increases, the OH groups decrease leading to a decrease in
solubility

14. Properties of Solutions: Factors Affecting Solubility
Substances with similar intermolecular attractive forces tend to be soluble
in one another….LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE
Glocuse has 5-OH groups on a six carbon framework which makes the
molecule fairly soluble in water

15. Properties of Solutions: Factors Affecting Solubility
Substances with similar intermolecular attractive forces tend to be soluble
in one another….LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE
Predict whether each of the following substances is more likely to dissolve in carbon
tetrachloride or water: C7H16. NaHCO3, HCl

16. Pressure Effects
The solubility of a gas in any solvent is increased as the pressure of the gas over the solvent increases
By contrast the solubility of solids and liquids are not appreciable affected by pressure.

17. The relationship between pressure and solubility is expressed by Henry’s Law:
Cg = kPg where Cg is the solubility of the gas in the solution phase, Pg is the partial pressure of the gas over the solution, and k is a Henry’s law constant which differs from one solute-solvent pair to another.
For example the solubility of N2 gas in water at 25 ° C and 0.78 atm. is 5.3 x 10-4 M
k = 5.3 x 10-4 M/0.78 = 6.8 x 10-4 mol/l-atm. Assume that the partial pressure of the N2 is doubled, Henry’s law, Cg = kPg predicts that the solubility will also double.
Cg = kPg
Cg = (6.8 x 10-4 mol/l-atm)(1.56 atm)
Cg =

18. In general, the solubility of gases decreases as temperature increases
Temperature Effects
In general, the solubility of gases decreases as temperature increases

19. Temperature Effects
In general, the solubility of of ionic compounds, solids, normally increases as the temperature increases.

20. Colligative Properties
The increase or decrease of of the concentrations and not the kinds of particles in solutions can effect certain physical properties of solutions
Freezing point depression of a solution
Boiling point elevation of a solution
vapor pressure; Raoult’s Law
Osmotic pressure
Colligative means “depending upon the collection”; colligative properties depend upon the collective effect of the number of solute particles

21. Lowering the Vapor Pressure: TRY EXPLAINING THIS ONE!!
Colligative Properties
Lowering the Vapor Pressure: TRY EXPLAINING THIS ONE!!

22. Lowering the Vapor Pressure: Explaining How it is Done!!
A non-volatile solute added to a solvent reduces the capacity of the
solvent molecules in the liquid phase to move into the gas phase
The extent to which a nonvolatile solute lowers the vapor pressure
is proportional to the concentration

23. Raoult’s Law: Calculating the vapor pressure of a solution based upon the amount of solute being added to the solution.
PA = XAPA° Where PA is the vapor pressure of the solution, XA is the mole fraction of solvent, and P°A is the vapor pressure of the pure solvent

24. Colligative Properties are the first evidence that salts break up into ions.
Xa = Mole of solvent
Moles of solvent + moles of solute x i
If 10g of MgCl2 is added to 100ml of H2O at 23ºC, what would be the vapor pressure. The vapor pressure for water at this temperature is torr.

25. What is the vapor pressure of a solution made with 1 mol of Benzene and 2 mol of toluene at 20ºC and the mole fraction of the vapor? Benzene = 75 torr and Toluene = 22 torr
P A = XA P°A + P B = XB P°B

26. Properties of Solutions:Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression

27. Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression
Because nonvolatile solutes lower the vapor pressure of a solution, a higher temperature is required to cause the solution to boil.
Because the vapor pressure of the solution is lower than that of the solvent at all temps, in accordance to Raoult’s Law, the higher temperature is required to attain a vapor pressure of 1 atm.
 Tb = Kb m , where  Tb is directly proportional to the number of solute particles per moles of solvent molecules, and Kb is called the molal boiling-point-elevation constant
For example, the Kb of water is 0.52 °C/m; therefore a 1m solution of sucrose or any other aqueous solution that is 1m in nonvolatile solute particles will boil at a temperature of
0.52°C higher than pure water.

28. The freezing point corresponds to the temperature at which the vapor pressures of the solid and liquid phases are the same. The freezing point of a solution is lowered because the solute is not normally soluble in the solid phase of the solvent
If the solute is nonvolatile, the vapor pressure of the solution is reduced in proportion to the mole fraction of solute.
 Tf = Kf m , where  Tf is directly proportional to the number of solute particles per moles of solvent molecules, and Kf is called the molal-freezing-point-depression constant
For example, the Kf of water is 1.86 °C/m; therefore a 0.5 m solution of NaCl or any other aqueous solution that is 1m in nonvolatile solute particles will freeze at a temperature of
1.86 °C lower than pure water.

29. = 1.79 m = Therefore freezing point = -3.33 °C = 100.93 °C m
Calculate the freezing point and the boiling point of a solution of 100 g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2), antifreeze in 900 g of H2O.
Moles C2H6O2
100 g C2H6O2
1 mol C2H6O2
m = =
.900 kg H2O
Kilograms H2O
62.0 g C2H6O2
= 1.79 m
 Tf = Kf m
= °C
(1.79 m )
= 3.33 °C m
Therefore freezing point = °C
 Tb = Kbm
= °C
(1.79 m )
= °C m

30. ΔTb = Kbm KB for adrenaline is 3.63 0.49 = 3.63 (.64g mole ) .036kg
Adrenaline is the hormone that triggers the release of extra glucose molecules in times of stress or emergency. A solution of 0.64 g of adrenaline in 36.0 g of CCl4 elevates the boiling pt. by 0.49ºC. What is the molar mass?
ΔTb = Kbm KB for adrenaline is 3.63
0.49 = 3.63 (.64g mole ) xg
.036kg

31. Properties of Solutions:Osmosis
The pressure required to prevent osmosis is called the
osmotic pressure, , of the solution, where  = MRT
The net movement of solvent is always toward the more concentrated
solution

32. Properties of Solutions:Osmosis
Hypertonic Solution
Hypotonic Solution

33. Properties of Solutions:Osmosis
Sample problem: The average osmotic pressure of blood is 7.7 atm. At 25°C. What concentration of glucose (C6H12O6) would be isotonic with blood?

34. Lysozyme is an enzyme that breaks bacterial cell walls
Lysozyme is an enzyme that breaks bacterial cell walls. a solution containing g of this enzyme in 210 mL of solution has an osmotic pressure of torr at 25ºC. What is the molar mass of Lysozyme?
π = MRT
.953 = .150g mole xg
.21L

35. Properties of Solutions:Colloids
Suspensions that are the dividing Line Between Solutions and Heterogeneous Mixtures
Tyndell effect: a scattering of light by colloidal particles

36. Properties of Solutions:Colloids
The most important colloids are those in which the dispersing medium is water
Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids
Hydrophilic colloids are kept in
suspension by interaction
with surrounding water
molecules

37. Properties of Solutions:Colloids
The most important colloids are those in which the dispersing medium is water
Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids
Hydrophobic colloids can be stabilized in water by the adsorption of ions onto
their surface

38. Properties of Solutions:Colloids
The most important colloids are those in which the dispersing medium is water
Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids

39. Xa= moles of solvent moles of solvent + moles of solute x i
Pa = Xa Paº
Xa= moles of solvent
moles of solvent + moles of solute x i
ΔTb = Kbm i
ΔTf = Kfm i
π = MRTi