1. The Environment and Change Over Time
Chapter 6 1

2. 6-1
Fossil Evidence
of Evolution

3. The Fossil Record
The fossil record is made up of all the fossils ever discovered on Earth.
The fossil record provides evidence that species have changed over time.
Based on fossil evidence, scientists can recreate the physical appearance of species that are no longer alive on Earth.

4. How do fossils form?
Usually only the hard parts of an animal remain such as bones, teeth or shells
In plants, leaves, stems, roots, or seeds can leave behind fossils.
Fossils rarely occur, and most form when an organism dies and becomes buried in sediment. 4

5. Fossil Formation cont’
The impression (imprint) of an organism found in a rock is called a mold when it hardens.
A cast is a fossil copy of an organism in a rock

6. Trace Fossils- the preserved evidence of the activity of an organism.

7. Determining a Fossils age
Instead of dating fossils directly, scientists date the rocks the fossils are embedded inside.
If the age of the igneous layers is known, it is possible to estimate the age of the sedimentary layers—and the fossils they contain—between them.
Deeper fossils look less like present day organisms

8. Fossils Over Time
The geologic time scale is a chart that divides Earth’s history into different time units.

9. Extinctions
Extinctions occur when the last individual organism of a species dies.
A mass extinction occurs when many species become extinct within a few million years or less.
Extinctions can occur when environments change and organisms can’t adapt quickly enough

10. Extinctions cont’
The fossil record contains evidence that five mass extinction events have occurred during the Phanerozoic eon.

11. Extinctions cont’
The fossil record contains evidence of the appearance of many new species over time.
Biological evolution is the change over time in populations of related organisms

12. Biological evolution
The fossil record shows evidence that horses descended from organisms for which only fossils exist today.

13. 6-2
Theory of Evolution by
Natural Selection

14. In December 1831, the British naval ship HMS Beagle set sail from England for a 5 year long trip around the world.

15. Charles Darwin, a British Naturalist was on board.
A naturalist is a person who studies plants and animals by observing them.
His job was to learn as much as he could about the living things he saw on the voyage. 15

16. Darwin’s Observations
During the voyage, he observed many plants and animals that he had never seen before.
He wondered why there were so different than the plants and animals in England. 16

17. In 1835, the Beagle reached the Galapagos Islands
- a group of small islands in the Pacific Ocean off the west coast of South America

18. Were there differences between the Islands?
Darwin studied many animals on the islands & noticed differences & similarities between them 18

19. Giant Galapagos Tortoises
For example, the tortoises on one island had dome shaped shells and on another island had saddle-shaped shells.
Why? 19

20. Darwin found that each island in the Galápagos had a different environment, and tortoises looked different depending on which island environment they inhabited.

21. Blue-footed booby 21

22. Red-footed booby 22

23. Land and Marine Iguanas

24. The Iguanas
The Iguanas on the Islands had large claws and the Iguanas on the mainland had smaller claws.
Why?
Large claws allowed the Iguanas to hold on to the slippery rocks to feed on seaweed.
Small claws allowed the Iguanas to climb trees where they ate leaves. 24

25. Cormorants (large sea birds) were able to fly on the mainland but could not fly on the Islands.
Flightless Cormorant
Mainland Cormorant

26. Similarities and Differences
Darwin observed that many of the species on the Galapagos Islands were similar to those on the mainland.
Why?
Where did they come from? 26

27. How did they get there?
Darwin inferred that some of the animals from mainland Ecuador came over to the Islands
They might have been blown out to sea during a storm or drifted on a log millions of years ago 27

28. Darwin’s Finches
Finches on the Galapagos Islands differed slightly from the finches in Ecuador too
The finches on each of the Galapagos Islands were also different from each other
Mainly the shape of their beaks and the food they ate were different depending what was available on their island
The finches had to adapt to life on their island or they would die

29. Darwin’s Finches of the Galapagos

30. Darwin’s Theory
Darwin realized the Galapagos animals came from common ancestors, but had changed over time & now had slight differences or variations.
A variation is a slight difference in an inherited trait of individual members of a species.
Variations arise naturally in populations, occurring in offspring as a result of sexual reproduction.
The #1 source of variations are genetic mutations, which are changes in a gene

31. Peppered Moths
Before 1850, black peppered moths were rare and white were more common.

32. Natural Selection in action
Several species of birds eat the peppered moths.
White moths blended into their surroundings and black moths were eaten more frequently.

33. After the 1850’s…
Soot and smoke from industrial areas blackened nearby trees
Black moths became less visible and white moths stood out and became easy prey
More black moths survived and produced more black moth offspring
Population changed from mostly light-colored moths to mostly dark-colored moths

35. Darwin’s Theory
Darwin believed these variations occurred through the process of Natural Selection
Natural Selection is the process by which organisms with favorable traits that help them survive in their environments live longer, compete better, and reproduce more than those that do not have the better trait.
Natural selection explains how populations change as their environments change.

36. Natural Selection (4 steps)
1859 Darwin wrote
The Origin of the Species
In it, he says that evolution occurs by natural selection
Individuals that are better adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce
“survival of the fittest” 36

37. Reproduction
Most species naturally produces more offspring than will survive to maturity
Starvation, disease, predators affect the size of their population
Limited number survive to reproduction age
Offspring of the strongest organisms inherit traits that help them survive in their environment

38. 2. Genetic Variation
Offspring have slightly different traits from one another
Some traits increase the chances of survival and reproduction, others decrease the chances of survival
These variations are inherited

39. 3. Competition
Natural environments do not have enough food, water, and other resources
Offspring fight for food, water, and other resources
Some become prey for predators
Only the fittest (strongest) survive to adulthood

40. 4. Selection
Offspring that are better adapted to the environment will be naturally “selected” to survive & reproduce to keep the species going

41. Natural Selection in 4 steps

42. Species produces more offspring than will survive 2. Genetic Variation
Natural Selection
1. Reproduction
Species produces more offspring than will survive
2. Genetic Variation
Offspring have different traits
Some traits increase chances of survival
3. Competition
Offspring fight for food, water, and other resources
Some become prey
The fittest survive to adulthood
4. Selection
Offspring better adapted to environment are more likely to reproduce

43. Adaptations
Through natural selection, a helpful variation in one individual can spread to all members of a population.
An adaptation is an inherited trait that increases an organism’s chance of surviving and reproducing in its environment.
Adaptations can be structural or behavioral
Example: structures and behaviors for finding food, for protection, and for moving from place to place

44. Adaptations to Habitat
Arctic hare-
white fur in winter provides camouflage from predators
(structural adaptation)

45. Adaptations to Habitat
Monkey-
Grasping tail acts as an extra hand to aid movement through trees
(structural adaptation)

46. Adaptations to Habitat
Cactus
Waxy skin reduces water loss from evaporation
(structural adaptation)

47. Adaptations to Habitat
Black Bear
Hibernates to adapt to seasonal changes
(behavioral adaptation)

48. Artificial Selection
The breeding of organisms for desired characteristics is called selective breeding
Darwin realized that changes caused by selective breeding were much like changes caused by natural selection, but done by humans.
Humans can choose to breed individuals with desired traits
Farmers can choose to breed only corn with plump corn kernels
Dog breeders choose which dogs to breed by selecting traits

49. What is a Species?
A species is a group of similar organisms that can mate with each other and produce fertile offspring.
Species evolve so they can survive in their changing environment.
Not all members of a species are strong enough to evolve and survive. 49

50. How do new species form? Isolation or complete separation occurs
Over time new traits are developed
Formation of a new species can happen in 3 steps: 50

51. 1. Separation
A portion of a population becomes isolated from the rest of the population by:
newly formed canyon, mountain range, lake

52. 2. Adaptation
If the population is divided, the environment may also change and so may the population that lives there
The separated groups may adapt to better fit their environments

53. 3. Division
2 groups may become so different that they can no longer interbreed
They are no longer the same species

54. Darwin’s Finches may have evolved this way:
Some finches left the mainland and reached one of the islands (separation)
The finches reproduced and adapted to the environment (adaptation)
Some finches flew to a second island (separation)
The finches reproduced and adapted to a different environment (adaptation)
Some finches flew back to the first island but could no longer interbreed with those finches (division)
This process may have occurred over and over again as the finches flew to the other islands

55. 1.Separation 2.Adaptation 3.Division
Formation of a New Species
1.Separation
Portion of a population becomes isolated from the rest of the population by:
Newly formed canyon
Mountain range
Lake
2.Adaptation
As environment changes, separated groups adapt to their new environment
3.Division
Groups of a population become so different they can no longer interbreed
Different species form

56. Biological Evidence of Evolution
6-3
Biological Evidence of Evolution

57. Evidence for Evolution
Evolution is the process by which populations accumulate inherited changes over time
Because of evolution, scientists think that all living things share a common ancestor

58. Evidence for common ancestry
Homologous structures are body parts of organisms that are similar in structure and position but different in function.
Suggests a common ancestor
Homologous structures

59. Evidence for common ancestry
Body parts that perform a similar function but differ in structure are analogous structures

60. Evidence for common ancestry
Vestigial Structures are body parts that have lost their original function through evolution.
Examples:
Human Tail Bone
Appendix
Tonsils
Wisdom teeth
Remnants of hind-limb bones are embedded inside the whale’s body
“Leftovers”

61. Comparing DNA Looking at similarities in DNA
Human and chimpanzee DNA 99% identical
Suggests common ancestor

62. How are these species alike?
Turtle
Chicken
Rat 62

63. Early development
Turtle
Chicken
Rat 63

64. Early development All have a tail All have gill slits
They share a common ancestor 64

65. Comparing Embryos Similar appearance early in embryonic development
The science of the development of embryos from fertilization to birth is called embryology
Suggest common ancestor