1. Alan Evans • Kendall Martin
Technology in Action
Alan Evans • Kendall Martin
Mary Anne Poatsy
Tenth Edition
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2. Technology in Focus: Information Technology Ethics
Technology in Action
Technology in Focus:
Information Technology Ethics
In this Technology in Focus feature, we explore what ethics is, how your personal ethics develop, and how your personal ethics fit into the world around you.
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3. Chapter Topics What Is Ethics? Personal Ethics
Personal Ethics and Your Work Life
Technology and Ethics: How One Affects the Other
Using Computers to Support Ethical Conduct
Topics in this Technology in Focus include:
What Is Ethics?
Personal Ethics
Personal Ethics and Your Work Life
Technology and Ethics: How One Affects the Other
Using Computers to Support Ethical Conduct
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4. Key Issues Related to Technology and Ethics
Intellectual property rights
Privacy
E-commerce
Free speech
Computer abuse
Key Issues Related to Technology and ethics are:
Intellectual property rights
Privacy
E-commerce
Free speech
Computer abuse
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5. What Is Ethics? Study general nature of morals and moral choices
Morals: Conforming to established ideas of right and wrong
Difference between fairness and equity
Principles are guidelines used to make decisions
Ethics is the study of the general nature of morals and of the specific moral choices made by individuals. Morals involve conforming to established or accepted ideas of right and wrong (as generally dictated by society), and are usually viewed as black and white. Ethical issues often involve subtle distinctions, such as the difference between fairness and equity. Ethical principles are the guidelines you use to make decisions each day.
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6. What is Ethics? Doesn't Everyone Have the Same Ethical Values?
Relativism
Basic Tenets
• No universal moral truth
• Moral principles dictated by cultural tastes and customs
Examples
Topless bathing is prevalent in Europe but generally banned on public beaches in the United States
Divine Command Theory
• God is all-knowing and sets moral standards
• Conforming to God’s law is right, breaking it is wrong
Christians believe in rules such as the Ten Commandments
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7. What is Ethics? Doesn't Everyone Have the Same Ethical Values? (cont.)
Relativism
No universal moral truth
Dictated by cultural tastes and customs
Divine Command Theory
All-knowing God sets standards
Conforming to God’s law is good; breaking it is wrong
Relativism
Basic Tenets
• No universal moral truth
• Moral principles dictated by cultural tastes and customs
Examples
Topless bathing is prevalent in Europe but generally banned on public beaches in the United States
Divine Command Theory
• God is all-knowing and sets moral standards
• Conforming to God’s law is right, breaking it is wrong
Christians believe in rules such as the Ten Commandments
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8. What is Ethics? Doesn't Everyone Have the Same Ethical Values? (cont.)
Utilitarianism
Actions judged by consequences
Greater happiness is better
Individual happiness is not as important
Virtue Ethics
Morals are internal
Strives to behave well spontaneously
Utilitarianism
Basic Tenets
• Actions are judged solely by consequences
• Actions that generate greater happiness are judged to be better than actions that lead to unhappiness
• Individual happiness is not important— consider the greater good
Examples
Using weapons of mass destruction ends a war sooner and therefore saves lives otherwise destroyed by conventional fighting
Virtue Ethics
• Morals are internal
• Strive to be a person who behaves well spontaneously
A supervisor views the person who volunteered to clean up a park as a better person than the workers who are there because of court-ordered community service
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9. What is Ethics? Doesn't Everyone Have the Same Ethical Values? (cont.)
Deontology (duty-based)
Adherence to moral duties and rights
Applies to everyone equally
Deontology (duty-based)
Basic Tenets
• Focus on adherence to moral duties and rights
• Morals should apply to everyone equally
Examples
Human rights (like freedom of religion) should be respected for all people because human rights should be applied universally
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10. What is Ethics? Doesn't Everyone have the Same Basic Ethics?
Laws are formal, written standards
Designed to apply to everyone
Enforced by government agencies
Interpreted by the courts
Impossible to pass enough laws
Ethics is needed to provide a general set of unwritten guidelines
Laws are formal, written standards designed to apply to everyone. Laws are enforced by government agencies and interpreted by the courts. However, it’s impossible to pass laws
that cover every possible behavior in which humans can engage. Therefore, ethics provide a general set of unwritten guidelines for people to follow.
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11. What is Ethics? Is Unethical Behavior the Same as Illegal Behavior?
Unethical behavior isn’t necessarily illegal
Not all illegal behavior is unethical
Not conforming to approved standards
Amoral Behavior
No sense of right or wrong
No interest in moral consequences
Unethical behavior can be defined as not conforming to a set of approved standards of behavior. For instance, using your phone to text message a test
answer to your friend during an exam is unethical.
Amoral behavior occurs when a person has no sense of right and wrong and no interest in the moral consequences of his or her actions, such as when a murderer
shows no remorse for his crime.
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12. What is Ethics? Which System of Ethics Works Best?
No universal agreement
Most societies use a blend
Ethical decision are greatly influenced by personal ethics
There is no universal agreement on which is the best system of ethics. Most societies use a blend of different systems. Regardless of the ethical system of the
society in which you live, all ethical decisions are greatly influenced by personal ethics.
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13. Personal Ethics What are Personal Ethics?
Set of formal or informal principles
Some are clear, well- defined
Others are inconsistent or applied differently
Can be challenging to adhere to consistently
As you choose your words and actions, you are following a set of personal ethics—a checklist of personal decisions you have compiled to organize your life. Some people have a clear, well-defined set of principles they follow. Others’ ethics are inconsistent or are applied differently in similar situations.
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14. Personal Ethics How do a Person's Ethics Develop?
How do ethics develop?
Family
Cultural bias
Religious affiliation
Life experiences
Many elements contribute to your ethical development.
Naturally, your family has a major role in establishing the values you cherish in your own life, and these might include a cultural bias toward certain moral positions.
Your religious affiliation is another major influence in your ethical life, because most religions have established specific codes of ethical conduct. How these sets of ethics interact with the values of the larger culture is often challenging. Issues such as abortion, the death penalty, and war force confrontations between personal ethical systems and the larger society’s established legal-ethical system.
As you mature, your life experiences also affect your personal ethics. Does the behavior you see around you make sense within the ethical principles that your family, your church, or your first-grade teacher taught you? Has your experience led you to abandon some ethical rules and adopt others? Have you modified how and when you apply these laws of conduct, depending on what is at stake?
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15. Personal Ethics What if I'm Not Sure What My Personal Ethics Are?
Describe yourself
List key principles you believe
Identify external influences
Consider “why”
Prepare a statement of values
When you have a very clear and firm resolve on what values are most important to you, it might be easier to handle situations in your professional and personal life that demand ethical action. Follow these steps to help define your personal ethics:
Describe yourself. Write down a description of who you are based on how others view you. Would a friend describe you as honest, or helpful, or kind?
List your beliefs. Make a list of all of the beliefs that influence your decision making. For example, would you be comfortable working as a research assistant in a lab that infected dogs with diseases for medical research? How important is it to you that you never tell a lie? Consider whether your answers to these questions are “flexible.” Are there situations in which your answers might change (say, if a friend were ill or in danger)?
Identify external influences. Consider the places you work and live and how you relate to the people you see during the day. Are there things you would like to change about these relationships that would merit listing them in a code of ethics?
Consider “why.” After writing down your beliefs, think about why you believe them. Have you accepted them without investigation? Do they stand up in the context of your real-world experiences? Which of these values are worthy of short-term sacrifice to uphold your beliefs?
Prepare a statement of values. It can be useful to distill what you have written into a short list. Having a well-defined statement of the values you hold most important will make it easier for you to make ethical decisions in times of challenge.
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16. Personal Ethics What are the Benefits to Ethical Living?
Society has established rules of conduct
Ignoring or being inconsistent can have immediate impact
Health benefits to ethical living
Day-to-day decisions conflict with principles
Stress and anger often develop
More and more research is showing the health benefits of ethical living. When your day-to-day decisions are in conflict with the values you consider most important as a human being, you often develop stress and anger. Constant conflict between what you value and what actions you are forced to take can lead to a variety of types of mental and physical damage.
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17. Personal Ethics What are the Benefits to Ethical Living? (cont.)
Positive psychology
Dr. Martin Seligman
Causes of happiness instead of treating dysfunctions
Identify personal strengths and values
Align your life
Can impact your health and happiness
Perhaps even happiness itself is a result of living ethically. Positive psychology is a new focus in the field of psychology. Pioneered by Dr. Martin Seligman of the University of Pennsylvania, this field works to discover the causes of happiness instead of addressing the treatment of mental dysfunctions. Seligman’s research has shown that, by identifying your personal strengths and values, and then aligning your life so that you can apply them every day, you can experience an increase in happiness (and a decrease in depression) equivalent to the effects of antidepressant medication and therapy. Thus, finding a way to identify and then apply your ethics and values to your daily life can have an impact on your health and happiness.
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18. Personal Ethics and Your Work Life How do Employers Affect Personal Ethics?
Do your ethics change when you go to work?
Employers expect you to follow ethics and rules of conduct
Do not blindly follow unethical practices
All of your actions, words, and even thoughts are controlled by your personal ideas of right and wrong. But do your ethics shift when you go to work? Your employer expects you to follow the ethics and rules of conduct that the owner established for the business.
This doesn’t mean individuals need to blindly follow practices they feel are unethical or detrimental to society at large.
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19. Personal Ethics and Your Work Life If You Spot Unethical Behavior at Your Company, What Do You Do?
Whistle-blowers expose unethical (but still legal) acts
Do not blindly follow unethical practices
Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002
Requires that companies provide mechanisms for employees to report complaints
This is to be done anonymously
Often now done online
Whistle-blowers are people who turn businesses in to regulatory agencies for committing illegal acts. Whistle-blowers can also expose unethical (but still legal) acts by their employers by exposing unethical behavior through various media outlets.
Should your employer have control (or even input) about your conduct outside the office? Do behavior, integrity, and honesty off the job relate to job performance? They might. Even if they don’t, your actions could reflect poorly on your employer from your employer’s perspective.
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20. Personal Ethics and Your Work Life How does making ethical choices in a business setting differ from making personal ethical choices?
Most personal ethical decisions involve few people
Ethical choices in business must give consideration to stakeholders
Stakeholders are people or entities affected by the operations of a business
Customers, suppliers, employees, investors, financial lenders, and society
Most personal ethical decisions involve few people, unless the decision results in a significant impact on society.
When making ethical choices in the business world, give careful consideration to the stakeholders of the business.
Stakeholders are those people or entities affected by the operations of a business. Before making an ethical choice for a business, you need to consider the effect that choice will have on all of the stakeholders. Typical stakeholders for most businesses are customers, suppliers, employees, investors (shareholders), financial lenders, and society.
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21. Technology and Ethics: How One Affects the Other
Technology moves faster than rules can be formulated
Use of technology is often left up to the individual
Ethical considerations are never clear-cut
Reasonable people can have different views
In both good and bad ways, technology affects our community life, family life, work environment, education, and medical research, to name only a few areas of our lives. Because technology moves faster than rules can be formulated to govern it, how technology is used is often left up to the individual and the guidance of his or her personal ethics.
Technology constantly challenges our ethics as individuals and as a society.
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22. Ethics and Technology Issues
Technology constantly challenges our ethics as individuals and as a society. In the rest of this Technology in Focus feature, we explore some issues involving the relationship between technology and ethics. Specifically, we will examine situations in which ethics and technology touch each other: social justice (brain technology), intellectual property (international piracy), privacy (personal privacy and technology), e-commerce (geolocation), electronic communication issues (free speech), and computer abuse (cyberbullying).
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23. Ethics and Technology Issues (cont.)
Social justice (brain technology)
Intellectual property (international piracy)
Privacy (personal privacy and technology)
E-commerce (geolocation)
Electronic communication (free speech)
Computer abuse (cyberbullying)
Technology constantly challenges our ethics as individuals and as a society. In the rest of this Technology in Focus feature, we explore some issues involving the relationship between technology and ethics. Specifically, we will examine situations in which ethics and technology touch each other: social justice (brain technology), intellectual property (international piracy), privacy (personal privacy and technology), e-commerce (geolocation), electronic communication issues (free speech), and computer abuse (cyberbullying).
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24. Social Justice Brain Technology: Creating Cyborgs?
A cyborg contains both biological an artificial components
Does deployment of technology blur the lines between human and machine?
Brain-computer interfaces
Neurostimulation
Neural stem cells
Point
Brain Technology Research Will Provide Medical “Miracles”
Advocates of brain technology research argue that it will allow for the treatment of currently untreatable catastrophic illnesses and injuries, thus alleviating human
suffering.
1. Society will dictate what the acceptable uses of brain technology are, just as they have done for other types of advancements (such as atomic energy).
2. Technology is not responsible for the actions or the consequences of the actions of people. Governments can put controls in place to limit the uses of brain
technology just as the United States and Russia have done with strategic arms limitation agreements for nuclear weapons.
3. Technology has provided new tools that allow us to exercise unprecedented control over neurological systems. Ignoring these areas of research provides no relief for afflicted individuals.
Counterpoint
Brain Technology Will Radically Change Society if It is Misused
Critics maintain that the directions brain research will take cannot be adequately controlled and that creating humans with “enhanced” capabilities poses too much of a danger to society.
1. No one can ultimately prevent or control the results of brain technology research from being used for military purposes.
2. If technology is used irresponsibly, it might create strife between the groups that have access to enhanced brain technology and those who do not.
3. Integrating technology into human beings and altering their body chemistry essentially destroys what it means to be “human.”
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25. Intellectual Property International Pirates
Do entire countries support software piracy?
Intellectual property is protected by copyright law
Challenges in enforcing these standards in other countries
How should the trade partners respond?
Point
International copyright protections need to be vigorously enforced
Artists and software developers depend on the integrity of the protection of intellectual property, both within the United States and internationally, to make a fair profit on their work.
1. If other countries do not fight piracy, artists and developers have a disadvantage in the marketplace.
2. By allowing massive piracy, these other countries are stealing from the United States.
3. Every country needs to have a common understanding and enforcement of intellectual property laws for trade to be fair and beneficial to everyone.
Counterpoint
Global business demands understanding other cultures
Most countries have laws on their books regarding intellectual property. It is not the job of the United States to tell a foreign government how to conduct internal affairs.
1. The existing laws on intellectual property have worked to serve the interests of these countries. If U.S. companies do not want to sell to the billion-person market of China, that is their choice.
2. Piracy exists within the United States, so it is hypocritical to be chastising foreign governments for software piracy.
3. Companies can pursue restitution for piracy through the foreign court systems.
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26. Privacy Can Employers Peer Into Your Personal Life?
Can employers review your personal profiles on social media sites?
Privacy is a basic human right
Privacy is the right to be left alone to do as one pleases
Privacy means not being required to explain your behavior to others
Social media sites are about sharing information
Point
Employers Have No Right to Job Seekers’ Private Social Media Information
The advocates of protecting privacy in the United States argue that the right to privacy is a basic human right that should be afforded to everyone. Personal privacy concerns should outweigh the business needs of a corporation.
1. Social media sites have an inherent duty to protect the data of their users.
2. If employers are screening private information, they might misuse or lose control of the data or violate current employment law.
3. Default privacy settings on social media sites should all be opt-in, allowing users the ultimate control over who views their data.
Counterpoint
Employers Are Entitled to Gather Personal Information Directly Related to Employment
Advocates for unrestricted sharing of information feel that business concerns outweigh privacy concerns. Businesses should have the right to screen all data in social media sites to determine the character and fitness of employment candidates.
1. Volunteering password information does not violate an individual’s right to privacy.
2. Users can make their own privacy decisions and choose not to post or share sensitive information (opt out).
3. In the digital age, loss of a certain amount of privacy is inevitable.
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27. E-Commerce Geolocation: Who Knows Where You Are?
Do geolocation devices and applications threaten privacy?
Foursquare, Gowalla, Brightkite, and Loopt use geolocation services
Businesses use geolocation to promote products and offer rewards
Point
Geolocation devices do not threaten privacy
The advocates of using geolocation devices with minimal concern for threatened privacy are those who believe the social norm has shifted, and people have become comfortable with sharing more information.
1. Businesses are adopting geolocation apps as a part of their social media strategy to drive customers to their business. They would lose revenue if such activities ceased.
2. As the devices and apps become better and more precise, they might become useful as public safety and news-gathering devices.
3. Society might need to reevaluate its views about how much privacy is needed to maintain in people’s digital lives, as well as assume greater responsibility for making sensible decisions about sharing information through the Internet.
Counterpoint
Geolocation devices are a threat to privacy
The advocates for tighter privacy controls and awareness campaigns about the potential risks of using geolocation devices suggest that the threats are too big to ignore. Society has become too complacent with privacy issues.
1. Privacy settings on apps and GPS devices should be more restrictive to avoid broadcasting one’s location and risking personal assault.
2. Laws and regulations will need to be created as to the use and distribution of digital location information.
3. Consumers need to be educated about geolocation and the ways it can impact them so that they are able to make informed choices.
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28. Electronic Communication Does Free Speech Have a Price?
When does big business limit free speech?
Restricting search results for sensitive information
Business profits over basic human rights
Company must operate within the rules of the market in which it operates
Point
U.S. companies should comply with local laws
Those in favor of Microsoft’s actions to remain in China feel that if a company chooses to operate in a foreign country, they know the local laws and should be prepared to work within those laws as they do business. It is not the place of a company to try to change laws of foreign countries.
1. Microsoft conducts businesses in other countries that have censorship laws, so why not participate in China?
2. Working in China does not mean a company supports all of China’s policies.
3. Microsoft’s presence, as muted as it is, continues to advance the slow progress the Chinese government is making toward democracy. U.S. companies can ethically stay in China if they make an effort to improve human rights there. U.S. companies operating in China should agree on guidelines that respect human rights.
4. A U.S. company’s presence has no impact on reform—reform must come from within.
Counterpoint
U.S. companies should put what is right ahead of what is financially expedient
Those who are in favor of Google’s actions are believers that international corporations should begin to take a firm stance against governments that do not promote basic human rights.
1. China will never change unless there are financial and political interests to do so. Google’s departure helps pressure the Chinese government.
2. Google’s withdrawal from China threatens the viability of many advertising resellers in China. Will this added pressure help or hinder human rights efforts?
3. Google’s decision to leave helps put pressure on China’s government to play by global standards. It cannot expect to compete in the global marketplace while refusing to have a global exchange of ideas.
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29. Computer Abuse Cyberbullying: Who Should Protect Children From Each Other?
Whose responsibility is it to monitor cyberbullying?
Involves use of digital technologies
Many types of cyberbullying
Might result in criminal charges
Effects can be devastating
Often evidenced by signs
Vigilance is key
Point
Parents must protect their children from cyberbullying
Proponents of parental responsibility for detecting and preventing cyberbullying feel that it is a personal behavior issue. Individuals are responsible for their own behavior as long as it doesn’t harm others. Parents should be allowed to educate their children according to their own standards of behavior and preferences in terms of moral behavior (such as religion).
1. Parents are ultimately responsible for protecting their children.
2. Bullying is a personal behavior issue, and all decisions regarding personal freedom and behavior should be made by parents.
3. Because educating children about bullying is key to preventing it, decisions about the content of such training needs to be controlled by parents.
Counterpoint
Schools must bear the major responsibility for protecting students from cyberbullying
Cyberbullying affects society because it can severely damage an individual’s self-esteem. Cyberbullying is similar to other hate crimes and should enlist public officials (such as educators) in enforcement of the laws.
1. Parents do not supervise their children 24/7 and therefore require help from other responsible adults to protect their children.
2. Parents need to be assured that publicly funded institutions such as schools and libraries are “safe havens” where their children will not be exposed to malicious activities.
3. Educators have better resources than most parents for teaching children about the serious effects of cyberbullying.
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30. Using Computers to Support Ethical Conduct
Can use technology to support ethical conduct
Charitable organizations use the Internet for fundraising
Web is a tool for organizing aid to areas in crisis
Web sites and Facebook can locate friends and family members after a disaster
Many charitable organizations use the Internet and other technology tools for fundraising. When the earthquake and tsunami struck Japan in 2011, the Red Cross, the Salvation Army, and other charities received many pledges via text message from donors’ phones. Many people also made donations through charities’ Web sites.
The Internet is also a tool for organizing aid to areas in crisis. When a major earthquake struck Haiti in 2010, Ushahidi allowed organizations and individuals conducting relief efforts to collect and disseminate the latest information on victims and aid efforts.
More recently, after a devastating tornado hit Joplin, Missouri, in May 2011, people used the Red Cross Web site and Facebook to locate friends and family members. The level of personal interaction the Web supports and the speed at which information can be exchanged is allowing computer technology to support ethical conduct in powerful new ways.
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Publishing as Prentice Hall