1. PowerPoint ® Lecture Slide Presentation by Patty Bostwick-Taylor, Florence-Darlington Technical College Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PART A 2 Basic Chemistry

2. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Matter and Energy  Matter—anything that occupies space and has mass (weight)  Energy—the ability to do work  Chemical  Electrical  Mechanical  Radiant

3. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Composition of Matter  Elements—fundamental units of matter  96% of the body is made from four elements  Carbon (C)  Oxygen (O)  Hydrogen (H)  Nitrogen (N)  Atoms—building blocks of elements

4. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Atomic Structure  Nucleus  Protons (p + )  Neutrons (n 0 )  Outside of nucleus  Electrons (e - ) Figure 2.1

5. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Atomic Structure of Smallest Atoms Figure 2.2

6. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Identifying Elements  Atomic number—equal to the number of protons that the atom contains  Atomic mass number—sum of the protons and neutrons

7. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Isotopes and Atomic Weight  Isotopes  Have the same number of protons  Vary in number of neutrons Figure 2.3

8. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Isotopes and Atomic Weight  Atomic weight  Close to mass number of most abundant isotope  Atomic weight reflects natural isotope variation

9. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Radioactivity  Radioisotope  Heavy isotope  Tends to be unstable  Decomposes to more stable isotope  Radioactivity—process of spontaneous atomic decay

10. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Molecules and Compounds  Molecule—two or more like atoms combined chemically  Compound—two or more different atoms combined chemically Figure 2.4

11. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Chemical Reactions  Atoms are united by chemical bonds  Atoms dissociate from other atoms when chemical bonds are broken

12. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Electrons and Bonding  Electrons occupy energy levels called electron shells  Electrons closest to the nucleus are most strongly attracted  Each shell has distinct properties  The number of electrons has an upper limit  Shells closest to the nucleus fill first

13. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Electrons and Bonding  Bonding involves interactions between electrons in the outer shell (valence shell)  Full valence shells do not form bonds

14. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Inert Elements  Atoms are stable (inert) when the outermost shell is complete  How to fill the atom’s shells  Shell 1 can hold a maximum of 2 electrons  Shell 2 can hold a maximum of 8 electrons  Shell 3 can hold a maximum of 18 electrons

15. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Inert Elements  Atoms will gain, lose, or share electrons to complete their outermost orbitals and reach a stable state  Rule of eights  Atoms are considered stable when their outermost orbital has 8 electrons  The exception to this rule of eights is Shell 1, which can only hold 2 electrons

16. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Inert Elements Figure 2.5a

17. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.5b Reactive Elements  Valence shells are not full and are unstable  Tend to gain, lose, or share electrons  Allow for bond formation, which produces stable valence

18. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Chemical Bonds  Ionic bonds  Form when electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another  Ions  Charged particles  Anions are negative  Cations are positive  Either donate or accept electrons

19. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ionic Bonds Figure 2.6 +– Sodium atom (Na) (11p + ; 12n 0 ; 11e – ) Chlorine atom (Cl) (17p + ; 18n 0 ; 17e – ) Sodium ion (Na + )Chloride ion (Cl – ) Sodium chloride (NaCl) ClNaCl Na

20. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ionic Bonds Figure 2.6, step 1 Sodium atom (Na) (11p + ; 12n 0 ; 11e – ) Chlorine atom (Cl) (17p + ; 18n 0 ; 17e – ) Cl Na

21. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ionic Bonds Figure 2.6, step 2 Sodium atom (Na) (11p + ; 12n 0 ; 11e – ) Chlorine atom (Cl) (17p + ; 18n 0 ; 17e – ) Cl Na

22. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ionic Bonds Figure 2.6, step 3 +– Sodium atom (Na) (11p + ; 12n 0 ; 11e – ) Chlorine atom (Cl) (17p + ; 18n 0 ; 17e – ) Sodium ion (Na + )Chloride ion (Cl – ) Sodium chloride (NaCl) ClNaCl Na

23. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Chemical Bonds  Covalent bonds  Atoms become stable through shared electrons  Single covalent bonds share one pair of electrons  Double covalent bonds share two pairs of electrons

24. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Examples of Covalent Bonds Figure 2.7a

25. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Examples of Covalent Bonds Figure 2.7b

26. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Examples of Covalent Bonds Figure 2.7c

27. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Polarity  Covalently bonded molecules  Some are non-polar  Electrically neutral as a molecule  Some are polar  Have a positive and negative side Figure 2.8

28. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Chemical Bonds  Hydrogen bonds  Weak chemical bonds  Hydrogen is attracted to the negative portion of polar molecule  Provides attraction between molecules

29. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Hydrogen Bonds Figure 2.9

30. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Patterns of Chemical Reactions  Synthesis reaction (A + B  AB)  Atoms or molecules combine  Energy is absorbed for bond formation  Decomposition reaction (AB  A + B)  Molecule is broken down  Chemical energy is released

31. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Synthesis and Decomposition Reactions Figure 2.10a

32. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Synthesis and Decomposition Reactions Figure 2.10b

33. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Patterns of Chemical Reactions  Exchange reaction (AB + C  AC + B)  Involves both synthesis and decomposition reactions  Switch is made between molecule parts and different molecules are made

34. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Patterns of Chemical Reactions Figure 2.10c

35. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Biochemistry: Essentials for Life  Organic compounds  Contain carbon  Most are covalently bonded  Example: C 6 H 12 O 6 (glucose)  Inorganic compounds  Lack carbon  Tend to be simpler compounds  Example: H 2 O (water)

36. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Important Inorganic Compounds  Water  Most abundant inorganic compound  Vital properties  High heat capacity  Polarity/solvent properties  Chemical reactivity  Cushioning

37. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Important Inorganic Compounds  Salts  Easily dissociate into ions in the presence of water  Vital to many body functions  Include electrolytes which conduct electrical currents

38. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Dissociation of a Salt in Water Figure 2.11

39. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Important Inorganic Compounds  Acids  Release hydrogen ions (H + )  Are proton donors  Bases  Release hydroxyl ions (OH – )  Are proton acceptors  Neutralization reaction  Acids and bases react to form water and a salt

40. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.12 pH  Measures relative concentration of hydrogen ions  pH 7 = neutral  pH below 7 = acidic  pH above 7 = basic  Buffers—chemicals that can regulate pH change

41. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Important Organic Compounds  Carbohydrates  Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen  Include sugars and starches  Classified according to size  Monosaccharides—simple sugars  Disaccharides—two simple sugars joined by dehydration synthesis  Polysaccharides—long-branching chains of linked simple sugars

42. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Carbohydrates Figure 2.13a–b

43. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Carbohydrates Figure 2.13c

44. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Carbohydrates Figure 2.14

45. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Important Organic Compounds  Lipids  Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen  Carbon and hydrogen outnumber oxygen  Insoluble in water

46. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Lipids  Common lipids in the human body  Neutral fats (triglycerides)  Found in fat deposits  Composed of fatty acids and glycerol  Source of stored energy

47. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Lipids Figure 2.15a

48. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Lipids  Common lipids in the human body (continued)  Phospholipids  Form cell membranes  Steroids  Include cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, and some hormones

49. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Lipids Figure 2.15b

50. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.15c Lipids  Cholesterol  The basis for all steroids made in the body

51. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Important Organic Compounds  Proteins  Made of amino acids  Contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur Figure 2.16

52. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Proteins  Account for over half of the body’s organic matter  Provide for construction materials for body tissues  Play a vital role in cell function  Act as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies

53. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Proteins  Amino acid structure  Contain an amine group (NH 2 )  Contain an acid group (COOH)  Vary only by R groups

54. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.17a Proteins  Fibrous proteins  Also known as structural proteins  Appear in body structures  Examples include collagen and keratin  Stable

55. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.17b Proteins  Globular proteins  Also known as functional proteins  Function as antibodies or enzymes  Can be denatured

56. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.18a Enzymes  Act as biological catalysts  Increase the rate of chemical reactions

57. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Enzymes Figure 2.18b

58. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Important Organic Compounds  Nucleic Acids  Provide blueprint of life  Nucleotide bases  A = Adenine  G = Guanine  C = Cytosine  T = Thymine  U = Uracil  Make DNA and RNA Figure 2.19a

59. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nucleic Acids  Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)  Organized by complimentary bases to form double helix  Replicates before cell division  Provides instructions for every protein in the body Figure 2.19c

60. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Important Organic Compounds  Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)  Chemical energy used by all cells  Energy is released by breaking high energy phosphate bond  ATP is replenished by oxidation of food fuels

61. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Figure 2.20a

62. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21 + ADP Solute Contracted muscle cell Product made Relaxed muscle cell Reactants Transport work Mechanical work Chemical work Membrane protein Solute transported Energy liberated during oxidation of food fuels used to regenerate ATP ATP P P P X Y (a) (b) (c) YX P P +

63. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21, step 1 Solute Transport work Membrane protein ATP (a) P

64. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21, step 2 + ADP Solute Transport work Membrane protein Solute transported ATP P (a) P P

65. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21, step 3 Relaxed muscle cell Mechanical work ATP (b)

66. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21, step 4 + ADP Contracted muscle cell Relaxed muscle cell Mechanical work ATP P (b)

67. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21, step 5 Reactants Chemical work ATP PX Y (c) +

68. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21, step 6 + ADP Product madeReactants Chemical work ATP P P P X Y (c) YX +

69. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21, step 7 + ADP Solute Contracted muscle cell Product made Relaxed muscle cell Reactants Transport work Mechanical work Chemical work Membrane protein Solute transported ATP P P P X Y (a) (b) (c) YX P P +

70. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21, step 8 + ADP Solute Contracted muscle cell Product made Relaxed muscle cell Reactants Transport work Mechanical work Chemical work Membrane protein Solute transported Energy liberated during oxidation of food fuels used to regenerate ATP ATP P P P X Y (a) (b) (c) YX P P +