1. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Alterations of Renal and Urinary Tract Function Chapter 29

2. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Urinary Tract Obstruction  Urinary tract obstruction is an interference with the flow of urine at any site along the urinary tract  The obstruction can be caused by an anatomic or functional defect Obstructive uropathy Obstructive uropathy

3. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Urinary Tract Obstruction  Severity based on:  Location  Completeness  Involvement of one or both upper urinary tracts  Duration  Cause

4. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Urinary Tract Obstruction  Hydroureter  Hydronephrosis

5. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published.

6. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published.

7. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Structures of the Kidney

8. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Urinary Tract Obstruction

9. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published.

10. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Urinary Tract Obstruction  Compensatory hypertrophy  Obligatory growth  Compensatory growth  Postobstructive diuresis

11. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Upper Urinary Tract Obstruction  Kidney stones  Calculi or urinary stones Masses of crystals, protein, or other substances that form within and may obstruct the urinary tract Masses of crystals, protein, or other substances that form within and may obstruct the urinary tract  Risk factors Gender, race, geographic location, seasonal factors, fluid intake, diet, and occupation Gender, race, geographic location, seasonal factors, fluid intake, diet, and occupation  Kidney stones are classified according to the minerals comprising the stones

12. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Kidney Stone Formation  Supersaturation of one or more salts  Presence of a salt in a higher concentration than the volume able to dissolve the salt  Precipitation of a salt from liquid to solid state  Temperature and pH  Growth into a stone via crystallization or aggregation

13. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Kidney Stone Formation  Other factors affecting stone formation  Crystal growth-inhibiting substances  Particle retention  Matrix  Stones  Calcium oxalate or calcium phosphate  Struvite stones  Uric acid stones  Cystine stones

14. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published.

15. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published.

16. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Kidney Stones  Manifestation  Renal colic  Evaluation  Stone and urine analysis  Intravenous pyelogram (IVP) or kidney, ureter, bladder x-ray (KUB)  Spiral abdominal CT

17. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Intravenous Pyleogram

18. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Kidney Stones  Treatment  High fluid intake, decreasing dietary intake of stone-forming substances, stone removal

19. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Lithotripsy

20. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Lower Urinary Tract Obstruction  Neurogenic bladder (Table 29-2)  Dyssynergia Detrusor hyperreflexia Detrusor hyperreflexia Detrusor areflexia Detrusor areflexia  Obstruction  Low bladder wall compliance

21. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Tumors  Renal tumors  Renal adenomas  Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) (Table 29-3)  Bladder tumors (Table 29-4)  Transitional cell carcinoma  Gross, painless hematuria  Most common in males older than 60 years

22. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published.

23. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published.

24. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Renal Cancer: Pseudopodia-metastasis

25. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)  UTI is inflammation of the urinary epithelium caused by bacteria  Acute cystitis  Noninfectious cystitis  Interstitial cystitis  Acute and chronic pyelonephritis

26. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)  Most common pathogens  Escherichia coli  Virulence of uropathogens  Host defense mechanisms

27. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published.

28. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published.

29. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)  Acute cystitis  Cystitis is an inflammation of the bladder  Manifestations Frequency, dysuria, urgency, and lower abdominal and/or suprapubic pain Frequency, dysuria, urgency, and lower abdominal and/or suprapubic pain  Treatment Antimicrobial therapy, increased fluid intake, avoidance of bladder irritants, and urinary analgesics Antimicrobial therapy, increased fluid intake, avoidance of bladder irritants, and urinary analgesics

30. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Hemorrhagic Cystitis:E.coli

31. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)  Nonbacterial infectious cystitis  Interstitial cystitis Manifestations Most common in women 20 to 30 years old Most common in women 20 to 30 years old Bladder fullness, frequency, small urine volume, chronic pelvic pain Bladder fullness, frequency, small urine volume, chronic pelvic pain  Treatment No single treatment effective; symptomatic reli ef No single treatment effective; symptomatic reli ef

32. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)  Pyelonephritis (Table 29-3)  Acute pyelonephritis Acute infection of the renal pelvis interstitium Acute infection of the renal pelvis interstitium  Vesicoureteral reflux, E. coli, Proteus, Pseudomonas  Chronic pyelonephritis Persistent or recurring episodes of acute pyelonephritis that leads to scarring Persistent or recurring episodes of acute pyelonephritis that leads to scarring Risk of chronic pyelonephritis increases in individuals with renal infections and some type of obstructive pathologic condition Risk of chronic pyelonephritis increases in individuals with renal infections and some type of obstructive pathologic condition

33. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Structures of the Kidney

34. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Chronic Pyelonephritis

35. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Glomerular Disorders  The glomerulopathies are disorders that directly affect the glomerulus  Urinary sediment changes  Nephrotic sediment  Nephritic sediment  Sediment of chronic glomerular disease “ Proteinuria”

36. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Glomerular Disorders  Glomerular disease demonstrates a sudden or insidious onset of hypertension, edema, and an elevated blood urea nitrogen & creatinine (BUN/Cr)  Decreased glomerular filtration rate(GFR)  Elevated plasma creatinine, urea, and reduced creatinine clearance

37. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Glomerular Disorders  Glomerular damage causes a decreased glomerular membrane surface area, glomerular capillary, and blood hydrostatic pressure  Glomerular damage causes a decreased glomerular membrane surface area, glomerular capillary blood flow, and blood hydrostatic pressure

38. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Glomerular Disorders  Increased glomerular capillary permeability and loss of negative ionic charge barrier result in passage of plasma proteins into the urine  Resulting hypoalbuminemia encourages plasma fluid to move into the interstitial spaces  Edema

39. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Nephron Function

40. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Glomerular Disorders  Glomerulonephritis  Inflammation of the glomerulus Immunologic abnormalities (most common) Immunologic abnormalities (most common) Drugs or toxins Drugs or toxins Vascular disorders Vascular disorders Systemic diseases Systemic diseases Viral causes Viral causes  Most common cause of end-stage renal failure

41. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Glomerulonephritis  Mechanisms of injury  Deposition of circulating soluble antigen-antibody complexes, often with complement fragments: Type III  Formation of antibodies against the glomerular basement membrane: Type II  Streptococcal release of neuramidase

42. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Glomerulonephritis  Acute poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis  Rapidly progressing glomerulonephritis  Antiglomerular basement membrane disease (Goodpasture syndrome)  Chronic glomerulonephritis

43. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published.

44. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Glomerulonephritis

45. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Nephrotic Syndrome  Excretion of 3.5 g or more of protein in the urine per day  The protein excretion is caused by glomerular injury  Findings  Hypoalbuminemia, edema, hyperlipidemia, and lipiduria, and vitamin D deficiency

46. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published.

47. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Nephrotic Syndrome  Membranous glomerulonephritis  Focal glomerulosclerosis  Minimal change disease (lipoid nephrosis)

48. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Acute Renal Failure (ARF)  Prerenal acute renal failure  Most common cause of ARF Hypovolemia, hypotension, hypoperfusion Hypovolemia, hypotension, hypoperfusion  Caused by impaired renal blood flow  GFR declines because of the decrease in filtration pressure (hydrostatic pressure)

49. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Acute Renal Failure (ARF) Table 29-11  Intrarenal acute renal failure  Acute tubular necrosis (ATN) is the most common cause of intrarenal renal failure Postischemic or nephrotoxic Postischemic or nephrotoxic Oliguria Oliguria  Postrenal acute renal failure  Occurs with urinary tract obstructions that affect the kidneys bilaterally

50. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Acute Renal Failure (ARF)

51. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published.

52. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Acute Renal Failure (ARF)  Oliguria phase  Diuretic phase  Recovery phase

53. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Chronic Renal Failure Table 29-11  Chronic renal failure is the irreversible loss of renal function that affects nearly all organ systems  Stages  Chronic renal insufficiency  Chronic renal failure  End-stage renal failure

54. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Chronic Renal Failure

55. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Chronic Renal Failure  Proteinuria and uremia  Creatinine and urea clearance  Fluid and electrolyte balance  Sodium and water balance  Phosphate and calcium balance  Potassium balance  Acid-base balance

56. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Chronic Renal Failure  Alterations seen in following systems:  Musculoskeletal  Cardiovascular and pulmonary  Hematologic  Immune  Neurologic

57. Elsevier items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Some material was previously published. Chronic Renal Failure  Gastrointestinal Alteration in protein, carbohydrate, and lipid metabolism Alteration in protein, carbohydrate, and lipid metabolism  Endocrine and reproduction  Integumentary