1. 1 Structure of the course I. Basic facts II. Two definitions of national identity that can be applied to Belarus III. Historical overview: independence and subordination IV. Belarus since independence: a rugged road to nationhood V. Analysis of national identity in Belarus VI. Group discussion

2. 2 Belarus ‘The forgotten heart of Europe’ ‘a natural park of communism’ the black hole of Europe’ ‘a denationalised nation’ ‘a country with a death wish’

3. 3 Belarus: Basic Facts area : 207.600 km² (landlocked) population : 10,4 mio population growth rate : -0.15% life expectancy : 62 years (m), 68 years (f) ethnic groups : 81,2% Belarusian, 11.4% Russian, 7.4% Polish, Ukrainian and other religion : 80% Eastern Orthodox, 20% other (Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, Muslim etc) official languages : Belarussian & Russian export partners : Russia 66%, Ukraine, Poland, Germany, Lithuania

4. 4 Government and Politics Government type : Republic President : Alyaksandr Lukashenka Administrative Divisions : 6 voblastsi and 1 municipality: Brestkaya, Homyel’skaya, Mahilowskaya, Minskaya, Vitsyebskaya, Horad Minsk Constitution : 30 March 1994 - revised by national referendum 1996

5. 5 Political Parties Political Parties : Opposition:(in Consultative Council of Parties BNF - Belarusian Popular Front (Burshevsky/Vyachorka) Belarusian Social-Democratic Party Hromada (Shuskevich) Agrarian Party (Sharetski) (split 1996) Belarusian Labour Party CAB - United Civic Party (Bogdankevich) Belarusian Party of Communists Others: KPB - Communist Party of Belarus pro-Lukashenka BPR - Belarusian Patriotic Movement pro- Lukashenko Agrarian Party (Shimanski) pro-Lukashenko Liberal Democratic Party (Gaydukevich) extremist party (links with Zhirinovsky) Lukashenka: Bezpartyjnyj - no party affiliation, ex- communist

6. 6 Executive branch Chief of state : Alyaksandr Lukashenka Head of Government : Prime Minister Gennady Novitsky Minister of Foreign Affairs : Mikhail Khvostov Cabinet : Council of Ministers Elections : president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; first election in 1994, 2nd election normally in 1999 but Lukashenko extended his term by referendum from 5 to 7 years second elections on Sept. 9, 2001 - percent of vote - Lukashenka 75,6%, Hancharyk 15,4%

7. 7 Legislative Branch: bicameral parliament : Natsianal’niy Schod (national assembly) consists of: Sovjet Respubliki (Council of the Republic), 64 seats Palata Predstavitelej (Chamber of Representatives), 110 seats  instead of previous 450 seats Judicial Branch Judicial Branch Supreme Court : judges appointed by President Constitutional Court : half of judges are appointed by President and half of judges are appointed by Chamber of Representatives

8. 8 Basic Question : What kind of National Identity? After independence: it seemed exceptionally difficult for Belarus to develop and establish national identity Different part of society have different views upon identity è hence, two possible definitions that can apply on the situation here:

9. 9 Anthony Smith Fundamental features of national identity : 1. a historic territory or homeland 2. common myths and historical memories 3. a common mass public culture 4. common legal rights and duties for all members 5. a common economy with territorial mobility for all members

10. 10 Benedict Anderson Imagined Communities -a nation = an imagined political community (constructed identity) -created by the end of the 18th C: many dynasties (Romanovs- Russian Empire) -begin 19th Century: tendency of self- identification: Romanovs asserted themselves as Great Russians -next step: imposed this self-identification on their subjects: official nationalism -in Russian Empire this took place through Russification (also in Belarus) -this form of Russian identity was followed by and continued in Soviet identity (explicitly and implicitly)

11. 11 Historical Development of the Belarusian state

12. 12 Two Important remarks that should be kept in mind throughout the course : Two Important remarks that should be kept in mind throughout the course : 1. Independence was not a Belarusian tradition: Only two periods of real independence (Rahvalod dynasty & 1918)but actually also under Great Duchy of Lithuania 2. History of Belarus is not exclusively linked to Russia. 4 centuries of relations with the West (Lithuania and Poland: 14th C until end of 18th C

13. 13 Cautious national revival in the years before and after Independence: 1986-1993 Influence by perestroika: letter to Gorbi to prevent distinction of B. culture & language Increasing criticism of Soviet regime 3 issues triggered change : 1. Chernobyl disaster 1986 70% of radioactive fallout on Belarus 2. language question -by mid-70s: 2/3 of Belarusians spoke Russian in daily life, only 1/3 Belarusian -no Belarusian schools in the 95 cities of BSSR -1990 Law on Languages: Belarusian as state language 3. mass graves in Kurapaty 1988 -archeologist Zyanon Paznyak discovers graves / execution place of NKVD -many mass demonstrations

14. 14 Cautious national revival 1989 : Founding congress of the Belarusian Popular Front (BPF) in Vilnius former capital of Great Duchy of Lithuania. leader: Zyanon Paznyak BPF and other groupings looked West for self-identification: to common history with the Central European Countries and Baltic States (mainly Lithuania) 1991 : BSSR becomes Republic of Belarus: the people went back to the common myths for the new national symbols - white-red-white flag of 1918 - coat of arms with knight (Pahonya)

15. 15 Cautious national revival: Problems 1991-1993 Ruling class reluctant to change. suspended communist membership but institutions remained the same: nothing really changed. Critical mass: internal quarrels (Paznyak vs. Shushkevich) - missed opportunities for BPF ideas on national revival mainly among intelligentsia and youth in Minsk: BPF failed to bridge the gap to the country side and reach the mass of the people. “The Country was led by an elite, opposed by another elite, while the general masses, conditioned to Soviet Rule, were reduced to passive onlookers” (D. Marples )

16. 16 Lukashenka and Neo-Sovietism Presidential Elections 1994: (other candidates: Shushkevich, Paznyak, Kebich) Lukashenka 80.1% (2nd round) opposition: ‘100 day grace period’ formed shadow cabinet from a group of more than 100 intellectuals supporting BPF policies attacked state television and independent media (editors of newspapers replaced) spoke invariably Russian : had a totally different view upon national identity this also appeared from a referendum he organised: direct attack on Belarusian national identity

17. 17 Referendum of May 1995

18. 18 After Referendum: Referendum: major success: people rejected national symbols of emerging nation! WHY? Marples: conditioning of electorate during soviet times / successful propaganda of Luskahenka. People still not used to self-initiative& free expression Soviet Style Flag and coat of arms Soviet textbooks reintroduced Russian became also a state language èintroduction of (neo-)Soviet symbols and customs (saturdays as workdays etc) Taras Kuzio: ‘sultanism’: president sought to strengthen his powers even more - felt restricted by parliament --> referendum

19. 19 Referendum of November 1996 amended version of constitution: dissolution of unicameral parliament into bicameral: Council of Republic, Chamber of Representatives protests 16-17 November: Russia intervened turnout 84%

20. 20 EU reaction to Referendum Success: Lukash. made unicameral parliament into bicameral parl. opposition collapsed, virt. Outlawed. from weak democracy towards authoritarianism Charity & public org. harassed through financial inspection EU reaction to Referendum Did not recognise new, amended Constitution SANCTIONS - PCA was not conluded, nor was its trade-related part (Interim Agreement) - Belarusian membership of the Council of Europe was not supported - Bilateral Relations at the Ministerial level were suspended - EU technical assistance programmes were frozen (except humanitarian aid, regional programmes and programmes directly benefiting the democratic process) 1999: STEP-BY-STEP APPROACH Sanctions would be gradually lifted upon fulfilment of the four benchmarks set by the OSCE: 1. Substantial powers returned to Parliament 2. Opposition representation in electoral commissions 3. Fair access to the state media for the opposition 4. Electoral legislation conforming to international standards --> some positive developments, but not all requirements have been fulfilled US: angry reaction after 1st secr. Arrested & declared persona non grata - another incident 1998: embassies

21. 21 Belarus - Russia Recognised National Assembly 1st years of independence: Belarus was 1 of most heavily milit. Countries in Eur. - wanted non-nuclear, neutral status PCA, START I, non-polif.treaty, PfP 1996 rel. W deteriorated (NATO enlarg Poland, Hungary) rappr Russia in different steps (see other slide) not bad in eyes of B. people: ec. Depend. 66% of Belarus exports go to Russia ‘the Assembly shop of the Soviet Union’: raw materials were made into finished products :Belarus relies heavily on CIS- Russia markets for raw materials and components

22. 22 Relations with Russia

23. 23 Contents of the Union 2 April 1996: Community of Sovereign Republics Countries combine policies in areas like - foreign policy - economic reforms - transport - energy - development of a single currency. Treaty created 3 new organs: ­Supreme Council ­Executive Committee ­Parliamentary Assembly BUT: Union mainly on paper - lower involvement of Russia under Putin?

24. 24 Belarus-Russia Pessimistic Scenario: Belarus as 90th subject of Russian Federation Union State = pet project of Lukashenka financial support through energy subsidies change under Putin but Belarus still geostrategic importance so: pro-merging economies / drafting of constitutional act

25. 25 National Identity Belarus: country divided over its national identity: a denationalised nation? 1. Lukashenko & ruling class - (Neo-)Soviet Identity - reinstating official nationalism: soviet style suymbols - Russification: Russian-language education and main state language èLukashenko strives for a neo-Soviet identity. èIsolates Belarus both from democratic West and Democratising East:  Belarus as an Imagined Community ( Anderson )

26. 26 2. Intelligentsia and young generation: Smith’s National identity 1. Belarus as their homeland/historic territory 2. shared common myths (times of independence) 3. common mass public culture: weekly ‘Pahonya’ (until 2002) and Nasha Niva (°1991, orig. 1906) - underground network 4. common legal rights and duties for all members: human rights aspect 5. common economy : independent Belarusian economy: vehemently opposed to merging economy with Russia: neo colonialism

27. 27 Anderson’s Imagined Communities  Lukashenka- Neo Sovietism  identity as an arena for the play of rhetorical practices of political actors constructivist view: identity is constructed, tied to civic and political commonalities of a group Smith’s definition of national identity  opposition’s view on national identity  primordialist view: identity is fixed and inherited by territorial and historical commonalities

28. 28 National Identity Current situation is temporary, not hopeless process of growing national identity is irreversible opposition is silenced but strong which path for ideas and support? - exclusively Western - or Russian path as well? Opening a Russian channel could be an option for high politics (not for opposition): change of policy, cooperating constructively: through Russia? Russia has most influence, Putin is pragmatic when it comes to good relations with West 2 problems: - make it an issue on the EU-Russia agenda - what are Russia’s intentions with Belarus?

29. 29 Discussion Concerning CIS Do you think that the reluctant attitude of Ukraine towards Russia and the positive attitude of Belarus towards Russia is identity- related in the way it was presented here? (constructed or primordial identity that determines attitude)