1. CARIBBEAN REGIONAL FISHERIES MECHANISM Queen Conch Fisheries Status and Management in CRFM Member States Workshop of the CFMC/WECAFC/CITES/OSPESCA/CRFM Working Group on Queen Conch Panama City, Panama 18 – 20 November 2014

2. Re-Cap 2012 Meeting Re-Cap 2012 Meeting History and aims of CARICOM CARICOM Fisheries Resource Assessment and Management Programme Establishment of Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (2002) General initiatives in fisheries management Caribbean Community Common Fisheries Policy (CCCFP) – confirmed by Council for Trade and Economic Development as Community policy document – 10 October 2014 2010 Castries (St Lucia) Declaration on Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing Technical Working Groups – Conch and Lobster Resources and Data, Methods and Training – support for national statistical database development and management, stock assessment, capacity-building Specific initiatives in Conch Fishery Management Support for developing use of under water visual surveys Queen conch fishery assessments – broaden management advice – economic information under alternative stock biological scenarios considered Two project proposals – ACP Fish II Programme CRFM-OSPESCA Joint Action Plan – approved by Ministers in September 2012

3. Achievements since 2012 Meeting Achievements since 2012 Meeting Training in under water visual survey methods for evaluation of stock status (June-Aug 2013 – ACP Fish II Programme) Theory – Queen conch biology, ecology, conservation, habitat requirements, regional connectivity; Theoretical & practical - sampling design, sampling methodologies, safety at sea - mock surveys off The Grenadines (Union Island, Mayreau, Palm Island, and the Tobago Keys Marine Park ) Data analysis - estimation of overall densities (adults and juveniles), total population size,/ biomass and determination of TACs (CITES guidelines); National strategies developed for conch fisheries independent surveys in Jamaica, Belize, Dominican Republic, Saint Lucia and Antigua and Barbuda; Report - fisheries independent approaches for assessment of queen conch -training manual on underwater visual survey techniques – mock survey results and recommendations

4. Achievements since 2012 Meeting Achievements since 2012 Meeting Support to improve and harmonize the scientific approaches required to inform sustainable management of queen conch (2013 – ACP Fish II Programme) 5 Case Studies - The Bahamas, Belize, the Dominican Republic, Grenada and Haiti - fishery description, harvest strategy, available data, assessment and analysis, management system & options, decision- making process, conclusions and recommendations; Regional review of scientific and management approaches to the management of queen conch; Regional Management Options Paper - basis for a regional queen conch management plan by CARICOM states – endorsed by Forum and Ministerial Council in 2014 – consistent with report of QC Expert Workshop in 2012, Panama Declaration & CITES Resolution (COP-16 of March 2013)

5. Achievements since 2012 Meeting Achievements since 2012 Meeting Data Collection Develop regional conversion factors; Develop a catch document system; Improve data management; Require mandatory reporting by processors, buyers and sellers; Improve trip sampling; Improve fishing effort data; Sample standard biological data from landings Data Analysis Develop an operating model; Develop and share conch assessment tools; Independent expert review of the harvest strategy; Spatial and habitat data collection and analysis; Socio-economic analysis of conch fisheries Management Draft regional CRFM regulations for : meat weight; lip thickness; shell length; closed season; Fisheries management plans completed; Develop harvest control rules in all fisheries Regional Management Options for Queen Conch

6. Achievements since 2012 Meeting Achievements since 2012 Meeting Petition of Wild Earth Guardians to have Queen Conch listed as an endangered or threatened species under the US Endangered Species Act Consolidation and presentation of recent information on status and management of fishery in CRFM Member States Regional position paper - 2012 Representation at CARICOM/United States Trade and Investment Meeting in 2013 Leading to US Gov’t decision on 3 rd November 2014 – “ Queen Conch not currently in danger of extinction throughout all or significant portions of its range…” not listed under ESA 2014 CRFM Scientific Meeting Jamaica – analysis of fisheries-dependent data (2013 catch, effort, CPUE data from log sheets) and fisheries independent data (visual abundance survey for 2011) – to establish 2014 TAC - Reviewed by RSWG The Bahamas & Belize – preliminary estimation of factors for converting from whole weight to exported weight in compliance with CITES COP 16 – ascertain whether conversions factor vary by area and feasibility of regional conversion factor

7. Description of Fisheries Two types: 1.Largest operations (catches) single mother ship – set of smaller catcher boats – trips of several days mainly diving with SCUBA (or free diving) – 20 to 40 divers catch processed at sea, conch landed already cleaned and frozen vessels associated with processing plants - major export markets – some local consumption Examples – Jamaican Pedro Bank fishery – similar type of operation to lesser extent in the Bahamas and Belize 2.Smaller artisanal vessels (most widespread) operate from landing sites on one day trips crew of 2-3 fishers fibreglass vessels with fast outboard engines diving with SCUBA or free diving target conch specifically or catch opportunistically alongside lobster and finfish – target conch during lobster closed season (eg Bahamas and TCI) meat landed uncleaned but without shell most islands have a fisheries purely for local consumption – landings at wide number of sites in small quantities – some export to other islands

8. Statistics: Annual Catch (t) WECAFC Area 31 – FAO FishStatJ Statistics: Annual Catch (t) WECAFC Area 31 – FAO FishStatJ

9. Statistics : Verification of FAO Statistics Statistics : Verification of FAO Statistics CountryVerification with FAO DataProposed changes – processing grade and conversion factor(s) applied Use and processing of shells, opercula and pearls BarbadosUnable to verify FAO statistics; Conch not fully captured in official data collection system; crude estimate of current landings is between 7.64 and 13.43 mt – suggesting that FAO statistics for recent years are likely under-estimates Shells marketed by roadside vendors, majority likely exported (personal allowance); no known use of opercula or shell for jewellery-making St VincentEstimated annual total catch from 1990 to 2010 provided; these appear to match FAO Statistics if conversion factor of 7.5 applied but with slight deviations in 1990 and 2002 and significant deviation in 1993 JamaicaTrade in opercula (traditional medicine) initiated with China recently TCIShells exported to China

10. Statistics : Conversion Factors Statistics : Conversion Factors Antigua & Barbuda: Mean, Processed wt. to nominal wt. (incl. shell) for 4 stages of dev. (Horsford et al., 2012) Tissue wt. (intact animal, shell removed) - 4.96 – 5.82 (n= 1231) Shell wt. (nominal wt. – tissue wt.) – 1.22 – 1.27 (n=1231) “Dirty” meat wt. (shell and digestive gland removed) – 6.09 – 7.12 (n=1231) “Clean” meat wt. (shell, digestive gland, mantle, operculum, radula removed) – 8.60 – 10.59 (n=1231) Barbuda: Mean, Processed wt. to nominal wt. (incl. shell) for 4 stages of dev. (Horsford et al., 2012a) Tissue wt. – 5.01 – 5.81 (n=477) Shell wt. – 1.22 – 1.26 (n=477) “Dirty” meat wt – 5.77 – 7.24 (n=477) “Clean” meat wt. – 9.22 – 10.17 (n=477) Some countries have developed conversion factors but the exercise has not been rigorous nor standardized across various grades of processing and countries...

11. Statistics : Conversion Factors Statistics : Conversion Factors Barbados: Processed wt. to nominal weight (whole live wt.) (Oxenford, 2014 – national report) “Dirty” meat wt. (g; shell removed) = 0.1377 * Nominal weight + 178.66 – (n=231; R 2 = 0.4136) 85-90% Clean meat wt = 0.0852 * Nominal weight + 53.867 – (n=27; R 2 = 0.7061) Barbados: “Dirty” meat weight to nominal (live) weight (Perez, 2014) 4.8 (n= 231) The Bahamas: Processed wt. to live wt. without shell (MRAG, 2013) Skinned Conch – 1.79 (n=874; 56% live weight) Conch Meat – 2.60 (n=53; 38% live weight) Trimmings – 7.16 (n=53; 13% live weight) The Bahamas: Exported meat weight to whole weight (incl shell) (10 th ASM Report of RSWG) Ranges between 12.5 and 16.7 (n=260; across 4 fishing grounds) Belize: Exported meat weight to whole weight (incl shell) (10 th ASM Report of RSWG) Ranges between 12.5 and 14.9 (n=195; across 3 fishing grounds) Belize: “Dirty” meat weight to nominal (live) weight (Perez, 2014) 3.5 (n=400)...

12. Statistics : Data Collection System Statistics : Data Collection System CountryTotal Catch or Landings Catch & EffortExportBiologicalSurvey & Mapping The Bahamas Processing plants since 1988 – submission of electronic records since 2011; extent of unrecorded catch unknown Trip interviews in New Providence since 1988 (not used to estimate total catch) √ Size composition at Grand Bahama, New Providence and Abaco in 1997- 98; sporadic shell size sampling - 2000, 2001, 2002, 2005, 2006 and 2009. Several, (5 since 2009) -small proportions of Banks area; recorded density and spawning observations mainly by local NGOs– DMR does not have the data GIS being developed descriptive info on main fishing grounds BelizeLandings reported by Cooperatives (1977-2012) covers commercial component; local consumption component not captured but likely small Cooperatives report (2000 to 2005) ; Effort data to be calibrated Managed Access Program – since Jul 2011 – daily trip interviews at 2 pilot sites Monthly reports of quantity and value provided by cooperatives since 2005 1996, 1997, 1999 – shell length, total wt, meat wt by sex & maturity Random sampling of exported conch meat weight (2005- 2012) Several surveys since 1996 – to evaluate harvest strategy – extensive mapping data on barrier reef & surrounding habitats in GIS - Surveys every 2 years since 2003- 2004 to assess natural population and estimate quotas JamaicaLogbook system √ Monthly data collection (weight, length, sex, maturity) Visual abundance surveys in 1994; 1997; 2002; 2007; 2011 Turks & Caicos Is Catch data since 1887; Effort data since 1970s. Currently data from 5 Class A processing plants Since 1800, exports to Haiti * Note 2010 socio – economic survey 2001 and 2013 Visual abundance surveys

13. Statistics : Data Collection System Statistics : Data Collection System CountryTotal CatchCatch & EffortExportBiologicalSurvey & Mapping Antigua & Barbuda √√√ Weight, sex, maturity, economic data BarbadosCurrently no effective system for capturing data on Queen Conch Not applicable Movement patterns, behaviour and reproductive biology (Bissada-Gooding and Oxenford 2010, Phillips et al. 2011, Bissada 2012) Fishery- independent abundance surveys (Oxenford et al. 2010, Valles and Oxenford 2012) GrenadaEstimated from recorded data by applying a raising factor – scientific basis for raising factor unknown Trip interviews at 6 markets (marketing Division); FD gets weekly total landings not linked to effort. Landings at secondary sites not captured √ 1996 to 1998 (N=600) - total weight (shell and meat), shell length, lip thickness, meat weight, and sex. Recent attempts to estimate mean weight of conch landed at Grenville market. None HaitiNo data collection systems 1995, 2007, 2009 St LuciaEstimated from trip interview programme and census data Trip interview programme (random, stratified sampling) √ Individuals per hectare, Socio- economic survey, shell length, lip thickness, total weight (live weight), dirty meat weight 2008 (King- Joseph et al. 2008) St Vincent & Grenadines Trip interview programme - random, stratified sampling at 7 zones (36 landing sites, 1 0 ;2 0 ;3 0 ) Trip interview programme (random, stratified sampling) √ None? None

14. Statistics : Data Collection System Statistics : Data Collection System Total catch and catch and effort data Processors - exporters & cooperatives – purchase receipts – successful in large establishments and central markets Trip interview programmes – routine – where exist provide good quality data – in some cases random stratified system along with census and other data allow for estimation of total landings Logbook system – from large-scale vessels (Jamaica) Challenges to capture fisheries mainly for local consumption – in some cases conch landings sites are not well captured by national fisheries statistical data collection systems. Export data Processors and exporters play a key role CITES permitting system allows for data capture National authorities with responsibility for trade and customs and excise

15. Statistics : Data Collection System Statistics : Data Collection System Biological data Some data collected associated with specific research programmes Few countries have ongoing programmes – Jamaica and Antigua and Barbuda collect on regular basis Some countries collect data sporadically Belize samples exports Socio-economic Most countries do no have such a programme TCI conducted economic survey in 2010 Antigua and Barbuda collects such data routinely Saint Lucia conducted socio-economic survey in 2008 Surveys Belize and Jamaica depend on abundance information from visual surveys to assess conch stocks – standard, well developed method to collect information on biomass, density and stock structure.

16. Policy and Legislation CountryUNCLOS UN Fish Stocks Agreement FAO Compliance Agreement CITESCBD SPAW Protocol FAO Port States Measures Agreement Anguilla25 Jul 1997*10 Dec 2001*√*√*√*- Antigua & Barbuda02 Feb 1989√√- Barbados12 Oct 199322 Sep 2000√√√√- Belize13 Aug 198314 Jul 2005√√√- The Bahamas29 Mar 198316 Jan 1997√√√- Dominica24 Oct 1991--√√-- Grenada15 Apr 1991--√√√- Guyana16 Nov 1991√√√- Haiti31 Jul 1996-√- Jamaica21 Mar 1983√√- Montserrat25 Jul 1997*10 Dec 2001*√*√*√*- St Kitts & Nevis07 Jan 1993√√- Saint Lucia27 Mar 198509 Aug 1996√√√√- Saint Vincent & Grenadines01 Oct 199329 Oct 2010-√√√- Suriname09 Jul 1998√√- Trinidad & Tobago25 Apr 199613 Sep 2006-√√√- Turks & Caicos Is.25 Jul 1997*10 Dec 2001*√ *√*√*-

17. Policy and Legislation Conch fishery policy guided by CITES requirements in all countries – All countries have a national CITES Committee –review CITES issues – conch being one; – Oftentimes Committee Members do not have experts in fisheries science and are inexperienced in fisheries issues – rely on inputs of fisheries departments – Committees should review science and decision-making – Need to evaluate management performance of countries involved in trade CCCFP (2014) and Castries Declaration (2010) – general management and conservation, MCS etc. Current fisheries legislation makes provisions for – Licensing and registration (local and foreign) – Fisheries research – Fish processing and export licensing – Range of conservation measures and regulations – Enforcement Some cases legislation being updated – most legislation make adequate provision for good management practice but resources are limited for implementation

18. Policy and Legislation Harmonised OECS Fisheries Legislation National Conch Fishery Management Plans (Drafts) – Most countries do not have a specific FMP except – – Jamaica (1994); Belize (2007) and Barbados (2009) - Plans in draft with partial implementation Need for well-defined harvest control rules – not yet applied in conch fisheries IUU an issue in some countries – Antigua and Barbuda and Belize have developed NPOAs

19. Policy and Legislation CountryPolicyFMPLegislation The Bahamas To ensure that conch is harvested in a sustainable manner while meeting local demand and only exporting excess product : CITES General Draft Fisheries Management Plan Fisheries Resources Act (1977) – Regs (1986) Wildlife Conservation and Trade Act (2004) – CITES BelizeSustainable use of the resource to ensure a constant supply, maintain high biomass to produce high production volume and high economic benefits Draft national FMP for Queen Conch (2007) - Aquatic Living Resources Bill (2012) – provision to meet regional and international fisheries conservation and management obligations JamaicaDraft National Fisheries Policy: Management objective: To ensure optimum sustainable yields and efficient utilization consistent with participatory, precautionary and ecosystem approaches to fisheries management (2014 RSWG Rep) Draft Conch Fishery Management Plan of 1994 Fishing Industry Act 1975 New regulations in 2000 require declaration of conch in storage before closed season; inspection of conch in holding areas, minimum size, and reserves coastal shelf for artisanal fishery. Turks and Caicos Is. Ensure that annual catch does not exceed MSY,; Restore and maintain populations to sustainable levels; Optimize benefits from exploitation

20. Policy and Legislation CountryPolicyFMPLegislation Antigua & Barbuda New Fisheries Act (2006) – Regulations (2012) NPOA IUU BarbadosSpecies-specific FMP drafted in 2009 (SIDA/UNEP-CEP/FAO-funded queen conch management workshop) – not yet finalized New draft Fisheries (Management) Regulations, 2014, under the Fisheries Act (not yet passed) – propose Minister’s permission to harvest species, greater flexibility in range of management measures Fisheries Sector Management and Development Policy (recent) Saint LuciaFisheries Plan 2013 - 2023 (draft)Fisheries Act and Regulations Chapter 7.15 of the Revised Laws of Saint Lucia 2005 St Vincent & Grenadines The Fisheries Act (1986) and Regulations (1987); Fish Processing Regulations (2001)

21. Fisheries Management & Conservation MeasureBahamasBelizeJamaicaTCI Effort limits/Access control Special permits *Proposed max 2,000 licensed fishers and 800 licensed boats √ (permit) VMS √ Minimum Size Can land only conch with flared lip Min. shell length – 7 ins (178 mm) Partially processed conch meat – 3.0 oz. Fully processed conch meat (fillet)– 2.75 oz. √ shell length of < 180 mm or no flared lip & meat weight < 225 g without digestive gland prohibited; Catch/ Export Quota √ (36% landings in 2011) √ (C&E; C not to exceed 70% MSY); depends on compliance of processors; √ (C&E); HCR - individual non-transferable quotas √ (C&E) Closed SeasonNone 01 Jul.- 30 Sept. 31 Jul to 01 Feb Jul.-Oct. Closed Areas√√ protected in 8 marine reserves Industrial vessels prohibited from fishing in coastal areas and > 30m 2 protected areas Gear controls √ SCUBA prohibited; hookah allowed only between 30 and 60 feet; No compressed air allowed 1 st April-30 th July √ (use of compressed air prohibited) Prohibition of SCUBA not possible – viable fishery depends on expl > 10m √ (use of compressed air prohibited) OtherPossession of diced conch meat prohibited Rec. fishery limited to 3 conch/pers/day

22. Fisheries Management & Conservation MeasureAntigua & Barbuda GrenadaHaitiSt Kitts & Nevis St LuciaSt Vincent & Grenadines Effort limits 2006 Regs – limited entry –special permits VMS Minimum Size shell length of < 180 mm or no flared lip & meat weight < 225 g without digestive gland prohibited; min. shell lip thickness of 5mm Min. shell length – 178 mm; min. meat wt - 225g; flared lip Prohibit harvest without well- formed lip shell length of < 180 mm or no flared lip & meat weight < 225 g without digestive gland prohibited; Harvest of shells < 180 mm (7”) or no flared lip & meat weight < 225 g without digestive gland prohibited Export Quota Closed Season √ July-AugustJuly-August Closed Areas √ (protected areas) MPAs protect nursery areas - <1% habitat 10 Marine Conservation Areas (9 in Grenadines) Gear controls√ prohibit use of hookah in protected areas Use of SCUBA and hookah prohibited Use of SCUBA and hookah authorised by permit Landings should be whole (with shell)

23. Fisheries Management & Conservation Effort Limits – Jamaica, Bahamas, Antigua and Barbuda - apply catch and effort controls – special permit system – Most countries - commercial fishing license is required to fish – Vessel registers sometimes not within control of Fisheries Departments – Active licensing system required for direct control of effort Vessel Monitoring System – Only Jamaica implements – Useful for combating IUU fishing but may be cost prohibitive – Appropriate systems for smaller vessels being investigated Minimum Size – Most countries have such a measure – but most cases applies to shell – Appears little or no enforcement of regulation – shell is not landed – no at-sea monitoring – Size limits evaluated in Belize and the Bahamas only

24. Fisheries Management & Conservation Export Quota – Jamaica, Turks and Caicos and Belize have export quotas – Enforcement at point of export and import to USA Closed Season – Widely but not universally used – In many countries conch targeted during lobster closed season (Bahamas & TCI) – TCI imposed closed season during lobster season to ensure conch quota continues through lobster closed season Closed Areas – Applied with varying degrees of success in a few countries (eg Belize, Bahamas) – In some cases protected areas not established for specific purpose of conservation of Queen Conch – Monitoring is an issue Gear Controls – Prohibition of use of compressed air in some countries – prevents exploitation of population in deeper waters – lower spawning stock mortality

25. Fisheries Management & Conservation Effectiveness of Measures – Most cases not evaluated – inadequate data & information Recent increases in catch levels Size limits evaluated – effective Closed areas – success - sig. biomass and important habitats protected Ban compressed air – appears effective in reducing mortality of spawning stock in deeper waters Sig. reduction in catch, effort, legal fishing mortality rate (from 0.22 per year in 1994 to 0.04 per year in 2011) Recent declines in catch rates (high mortality from hurricane; habitat destruction) Ban compressed air – appears effective in reducing mortality of spawning stock in deeper waters Recent increases in catch levels Size limit: flared lip req’t – possibly below size at maturity – effects on fishery & population not evaluated Closed areas – do not appear to offer sig. protection – reports of declining abundance within MPAs – likely proportion of stock protected is too small to be effective

26. Consumption and Trade CountryConsumption (kg per capita per year) Trade (I: imports and E:exports; volume and value) Trade markets (I: import; E: Export) Non-Detriment Findings BelizeAbout 5% of catches consumed locally ExportsE: US is main market? The BahamasMajority of conch consumed locally - 1.3 kg Exports since 1992E: 99% to US and rest to Canada? Jamaica?ExportsE: mainly the EU? Turks & Caicos Is?ExportsE: mainly US? Antigua & Barbuda 0.89kg meat; 6.67 kg live weight; 3 conch Negligible? Barbados0.03 – 0.05 (crude estimate) No imports or exportsNot applicableNot relevant Grenada?ExportsE: other Caribbean Is; mainly TT & BAR, Martinique? I: other C’bbean Is ? HaitiExports St Kitts & Nevis<30% catch consumed locally ExportsUSVI, Guadeloupe, St Martin? St LuciaMost sold locallyExportsCanada (pearls), Martinique?, personnel use trade to other countries ? St Vincent & Grenadines ?Exports: Annual quantity provided for 1990 – 2010 (exc. 1993, 1997) E: other Caribbean Is (Trinidad, Barbados, St Lucia), USA, England? No report prepared between 2011 and 2014

27. Research & Stock Assessment CRFM Annual Scientific Meetings (ongoing) Queen Conch fisheries analyses and assessments: 2006: The Bahamas, Jamaica, Turks and Caicos Islands 2007: Turks and Caicos Islands, St Lucia 2008: St Lucia 2009: Jamaica, Nevis, St Lucia 2010: Turks and Caicos Is 2012: Jamaica, 2014: Belize, The Bahamas, Jamaica Stock status & management, statistics and research recommendations Some countries conduct research with national, regional and international organizations and research institutions

28. Research & Stock Assessment CountryYearStock StatusData / Method Source (MRAG, 2013) Bahamas1998 Size-based stock assessment - not overfished. Recent surveys suggest - stock abundance has declined, at least at some grounds close to fishing harbours. Total catch Meat weight catch samples Weight based catch curve and cohort analysis Ehrhardt and Deleveaux (1999) Belize2010 No evidence of stock decline Recent abundance surveys - high stock size. Fishing effort has increased - small increase in risk. Total catch Fishery independent visual survey BCFU (2010) Jamaica2011 No evidence of stock decline Recent estimated F for legal fishery < 0.05 year -1 - main concern is IUU catch. Total catch Fishery independent visual survey Unpublished data Turks and Caicos Islands 2010 Good state in 2006 - but hurricanes in 2008 appear to have reduced catch rates to historically low levels TAC significantly reduced to allow the stock to increase Catch and effort data Biomass dynamics model CRFM (2007) CRFM (2010) Unpublished data St. Lucia2008Overfished but is not being overfished Precautionary TAC of 30 tonnes recommended. Improved data sets on habitat and animals per hectare available that may would refine model data and the management measure recommendation. Over 200 animals per hectare Catch and effort data from trip interviews Biomass dynamics model CRFM(2009)

29. Research & Stock Assessment Barbados: several research initiatives led by the UWI, partly funded by government - to support policy development and legislation in meeting national obligations and commitments to regional and international agreements – key areas of research include: – Fishery description and marketing arrangements – Fishery-independent abundance surveys – Movement patterns – Behaviour – Reproductive behaviour and biology – Larval recruitment St Vincent - baseline assessment and mapping of coastal and marine resources within the South Coast Marine Conservation Area - assessment of additional and alternative livelihoods (also within the SCMCA) and an evaluation of national legal and organizational frameworks for MPA management within St. Vincent and the Grenadines - Caribbean Aqua Terrestrial Solutions (CATS) Project – contributes to achievement of target under Caribbean Challenge Initiative – 20% of marine and coastal habitats to be protected by 2020

30. Main Sources of Information 2013 Study - Support to improve and harmonize the scientific approaches required to inform sustainable management of queen conch (MRAG, 2013 – also see references cited therein) CRFM Scientific Meeting Reports and other CRFM documents National reports – Barbados and St Vincent & Grenadines (also see references cited therein) GCFI reports for Horsford et al., 2012 Perez, 2014