1. Sociological Research

2. 1. Why is sociological research so important? It is how sociologists obtain their knowledge of human behaviour It allows sociologists to go beyond common sense and guess work in understanding society It leads to informed understanding of the ‘hows’ and ‘whys’ of human social interaction

3. 2. Five Ways of Knowing Personal experience: what we learn for ourselves Tradition: we accept what has always been believed Authority: we accept the judgment of experts ex. Medicine Religion: religious authority based on scriptures ex. Morality, diet, dress Science: involves controlled systematic observation- tested openly

4. Definitions: Empirical approach: findings are based on the assumption that knowledge is gained by direct, systematic observation Normative approach: uses religion, tradition or authority to answer important questions Hypothesis: tentative statements of the relationship between two or more concepts or variables Objective: scientists try to ensure their biases and values do not affect their research

5. Descriptive Studies Attempt to describe social reality or provide facts about some group, practice or event Designed to find out what is happening to whom, where and when Ex: What percent of people would return a lost wallet

6. Explanatory Studies Attempt to explain relationships and provide information on why certain events do or do not occur Ex: why are some people more likely than others to return a lost wallet?

7. Deductive vs Inductive Approaches Deductive: Researchers begin with a theory and conduct research to then prove the theory Ex: why do people help others? Inductive: Researchers collect information or data and then generate a theory from analysis of the data Ex: collecting data on helping behaviours

8. Research Methods (chart) Experiments: Carefully designed situation in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables on subjects’ attitudes or behaviour 1. Latane and Darley 2. Under what conditions would people be more likely to help others? 3. Set a series of experiments one of which involved a student faking a seizure to see if people would help when others were present.

9. Surveys: a number of respondents are asked identical questions through a systematic questionnaire or interview Can be self-administered questionnaires, personal interviews, telephone interviews 1. Richard T Tittmus 2. Why would people donate blood to strangers? 3. Gave out questionnaires at a blood donor clinic.

10. Secondary Analysis of Data: Researchers use existing material and analyze data originally collected by others, usually for another purpose 1. Pitirim Sorokin 2. Wanted to raise awareness of altruistic behaviour to make the world a better place. 3. Looked for examples in letters written to a radio programme (‘Good Neighbours’) and ‘Lives of the Saints’

11. Field Research: the study of social life in its natural settings: observing, and interviewing people where they live, work and play. 1. Louis Zurcher 2. Why do people give their time and take risks to help others? 3. Made observations and did informal interviews with workers after a tornado in his home town.

12. Quantitative Research Goal is scientific objectivity Tailored to a specific problem to be investigated Focus is on data that can be measured numerically

13. Qualitative Research Used to analyze underlying meanings and patterns of social relationships- the ‘how’ ‘what’ and ‘why’ Uses interpretive description (words) rather than statistics (numbers)

14. Definitions: Reliability: the extent to which a study or research instrument yields consistent results Validity: the extent to which a study or research instrument actually measures what it is supposed to measure Analysis: the process through which data are organized Respondent: persons who provide data for analysis through interviews or questionnaires Reactivity: tendency of participants to change their behaviour in response to the presence of a researcher or to the fact that they know they are being studied Control Group: subjects in an experiment who are not exposed to an independent variable Variable: any concept with measurable traits or characteristics that can change or vary from one person, time, situation, or society to another

15. Ethical Standards 1. Voluntary Participation: participants must know they are involved- give informed consent 2. Anonymity and confidentiality: participants must remain anonymous 3. No Harm: Participants must not be harmed psychologically, physically, or personally

16. The Humphreys Case 1970 Laud Humphreys Researched ‘tea rooms’, public restrooms in parks where men would meet to engage in homosexual acts Traced men through their license plates to learn more about them Met the standards by not divulging information to the police Did not meet the standards because his participants were not voluntary

17. The Ogden Case 1992 Russel Ogden Studied euthanasia and assisted suicide in AIDS patients Refused to give evidence at a coroner’s enquiry and was charged with contempt of court Lengthy legal battle, charges dropped

18. Met the standards Maintained the confidentiality of his participants Note: university added clause to ethics review policy that stated researches might have to divulge info to a court or other legal body