1. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 1 Chapter 6 Memory

2. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 2 Chapter Preview The nature of memory Memory encoding Memory storage Memory retrieval Forgetting Tips from the science of memory—for studying and for life

3. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 3 Chapter Preview The nature of memory video http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VQKt58ku Enk http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VQKt58ku Enk

4. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 4 Memory Retention of information or experience over time Processes: Encoding Storage Retrieval

5. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 5 Memory Encoding Process by which information enters memory storage Automatically With effort Attention Levels of processing Elaboration Use of mental imagery

6. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 6 Figure 6.2 – Depth of Processing

7. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 7 Attention To begin memory encoding, must pay attention to information Selective attention Focusing on specific aspects Limitation of brain’s resources Divided attention Attending to several things simultaneously

8. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 8 Attention Sustained attention Attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time Multi-tasking

9. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 9 Processing & Elaboration Levels of processing Continuum from shallow to deep Deeper processing, better memory Deep, elaborate processing is powerful Elaboration Number of different connections made Evident in physical activity of brain

10. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 10 Use of Mental Imagery Powerful encoding tool Verbal code Image code Dual-code hypothesis Memory for pictures better than memory for words Pictures stored as both image codes and verbal codes

11. 1. Encoding and Transfer of Information 1.Forms of Encoding Short-Term Storage Acoustic Encoding Participants were presented with series of six letters in a serial-recall task Errors – participants substituted letters that sounded like the correct letters (e.g. B for P) Short-term memory relies primarily on an acoustic rather than semantic or visual code

12. 1. Encoding and Transfer of Information 1.Forms of Encoding Short-Term Storage Semantic Encoding (by meanings of words) Although encoding in short-term memory appears to be primarily acoustic, there may be some secondary semantic encoding as well Visual Encoding We sometimes temporarily encode information visually as well, although visual encoding appears to be more fleeting and vulnerable to decay than acoustic encoding

13. 1. Encoding and Transfer of Information 1.Forms of Encoding Long-Term Storage Semantic Encoding Most information stored in long-term memory is primarily semantically encoded Evidence In recognition tasks participants make more errors when distracters are semantically related to target words We have tendency to remember words by clustering them into categories (e.g. animals)

14. 1. Encoding and Transfer of Information 1.Forms of Encoding Long-Term Storage Visual Encoding We tend to cluster items into categories according to their visual similarities Acoustic Encoding Sometimes (even though rarely) we use acoustic encoding too

15. 1. Encoding and Transfer of Information 2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory Basic Concepts Consolidation Process of integrating new information into stored information Metamemory Strategies Based on reflecting on our own memory processes with a view to improving our memory

16. 1. Encoding and Transfer of Information 2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory Rehearsal Repeated recitation of an item To move information into long-term memory, an individual must engage in elaborative rehearsal, in which the person meaningfully integrates the items into what the person already knows Maintenance rehearsal – the person simply repetitiously rehearses the items to be repeated, temporarily maintains information in short-term memory without transferring it to long-term memory

17. 1. Encoding and Transfer of Information 2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory Spacing effect People tend to remember information longer when they acquire it via distributed practice (i.e., various sessions spaced over time) rather than via massed practice (session crammed together all at once) A good night’s sleep, which includes plenty of REM stage sleep, aids in memory consolidation Benefits of distributed practice seem to occur because we have a relatively rapid learning system in the hippocampus that becomes activated during REM sleep

18. 1. Encoding and Transfer of Information 2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory Mnemonic devices Specific techniques to help you memorize lists of words by adding meaning to otherwise meaningless lists of items 1. Categorical clustering One organizes a list of items into a set of categories (e.g. fruits, vegetables,…) 2. Interactive images One imagines the objects represented by words one has to remember interacting with each other in some active way

19. 1. Encoding and Transfer of Information 2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory Mnemonic devices (cont.) 3. Pegword system One associates each word with a word on a previously memorized list and forms and interactive image between the two words (e.g. “one is a bun,” “two is a shoe” – imagining an apple between two bunds a sock stuffed inside a shoe) 4. Method of loci One visualizes walking around an area with distinctive landmarks and one then links the various landmarks to specific items to be remembered (e.g. a strange-looking house with a sock on top of the house in place of the chimney)

20. 1. Encoding and Transfer of Information 2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory Mnemonic devices (cont.) 5. Acronyms One devises a word or expression in which each of its letters stands for a certain other word or concept (e.g. UK) 6. Acrostics One forms a sentence rather than a single word to help one remember new words (e.g. “every good does fine” to recall names of notes in music)

21. 1. Encoding and Transfer of Information 2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory Mnemonic devices (cont.) 7. Keyword system One forms an interactive image that links the sound and meaning of a foreign word with the sound and meaning of a familiar word (e.g. libro (Spanish) with liberty and think of the Statue of Liberty holding up a large book)

22. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 22 Memory Storage How information is: Retained over time Represented in memory Atkinson-Shiffrin theory Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory

23. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 23 Figure 6.5 - Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Theory of Memory

24. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 24 Sensory Memory Holds information in sensory form for an instant Echoic memory Auditory sensory memory Retained for up to several seconds Iconic memory Visual sensory memory Retained for only about ¼ second

25. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 25 Short-Term Memory Limited-capacity (7±2 items) Information retained for up to 30 seconds, without strategies to retain it longer Chunking Grouping information into higher-order units Rehearsal Conscious repetition of information

26. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 26 Working Memory Alternative approach to explaining short-term memory Three-part system to hold information temporarily Phonological loop Briefly stores speech-based information

27. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 27 Working Memory Visuo-spatial working memory Stores visual and spatial information Central executive Integrates information

28. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 28 Figure 6.8 - Baddeley’s View of Working Memory

29. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 29 Long-Term Memory Relatively permanent memory Stores huge amounts of information for long time Explicit memory Implicit memory

30. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 30 Explicit (Declarative) Memory Conscious recollection of information that can be verbally communicated Permastore content Episodic memory Autobiographical information Semantic memory Knowledge about the world

31. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 31 Figure 6.11 - Some Differences Between Episodic and Semantic Memory

32. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 32 Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory Nonconscious recollection of skills and sensory perceptions Procedural memory Memory for skills Classical conditioning Memory for associations between stimuli Priming Activation of information already in storage

33. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 33 Memory: Organization Schema Preexisting mental concept to organize and interpret information Script Schema for an event Connectionism (parallel distributed processing) Memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons

34. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 34 Memory: Location Neurons Memory located in specific circuits of neurons Neurotransmitters play a role in forging connections Long-term potentiation Simultaneous activation of neurons strengthens memory

35. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 35 Memory: Location Brain structures Explicit memory Hippocampus, temporal lobes, limbic system (amygdala) Implicit memory Cerebellum, temporal lobes, hippocampus

36. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 36 Figure 6.12 – Structures of the Brain Involved in Different Aspects of Long-Term Memory

37. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 37 Memory: Retrieval Part II Speed Dating activity

38. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 38 Memory: Retrieval When information retained in memory comes out of storage Serial position effect Tendency to recall items at beginning and end of lists Primacy effect Better recall for items at beginning of list Recency effect Better recall for items at end of list

39. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 39 Memory: Retrieval Factors Retrieval cues Retrieval task Recall Memory task to retrieve previously learned information Recognition Memory task to identify, or recognize, learned items

40. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 40 Memory: Retrieval Encoding specificity principle Information present at time of learning tends to be effective as retrieval cue Context-dependent memory Remembering better when attempting to recall information in same context in which it was learned

41. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 41 Memory: Retrieval Autobiographical memories Special form of episodic memory containing recollections of own life experiences

42. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 42 Figure 6.15 - The Three-Level Hierarchical Structure of Autobiographical Memory

43. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 43 Memory: Retrieval Flashbulb memory Emotionally significant events Recalled with vivid imagery Memory for traumatic events May contain inaccuracies

44. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 44 Memory: Retrieval Repressed memories Defense mechanism by which person, traumatized by an event, forgets it – and then forgets act of forgetting May be special case of motivated forgetting

45. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 45 Eyewitness Testimony May contain errors Memory for emotional events Focus on: Distortion Bias Inaccuracy

46. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 46 Figure 6.16 - Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

47. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 47 Forgetting Encoding failure Not ‘forgotten’ but, never encoded Information never entered into long-term memory Retrieval failure Forgotten information

48. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 48 Forgetting: Interference Forgetting because other information gets in way of remembering Proactive interference Material learned earlier disrupts retrieval of material learned later Retroactive interference Material learned later disrupts retrieval of material learned earlier

49. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 49 Figure 6.18 - Proactive and Retroactive Interference

50. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 50 Forgetting Decay Neurochemical memory ‘trace’ disintegrates over time Cannot, alone, explain forgetting Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT state) Confident of knowing something but unable to retrieve it from memory

51. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 51 Prospective Memory Remembering information about future events Includes timing and content Time-based prospective memory Intention to engage in behavior after passage of time

52. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 52 Prospective Memory Event-based prospective memory Intention to engage in behavior when some external event elicits it

53. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 53 Amnesia Loss of memory Anterograde amnesia Disorder that affects retention of new information Retrograde amnesia Memory loss for a segment of past, but not for new events

54. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 54 Applying Memory Tips To your studies: Organize Encode Rehearse Retrieve To your life: Autobiographical memory and the life story Generative (vs. contamination) life stories

55. http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=fd0_126147 5829 http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=fd0_126147 5829 How Does your Memory Work 1 of 5 - BBC Horizon Documentary © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 55