1. Introduction to Psychology and Research Methods
Chapter 1
Introduction to Psychology and Research Methods
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2. What is Psychology? Psychology
Psyche: Mind
Logos: Knowledge or study
Definition: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
Behavior: Overt, i.e. can be directly observed (crying)
Mental Processes: Covert, i.e. cannot be directly observed (remembering)
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3. Philosophers try to explain psychological processes
2,000 yrs ago Aristotle wrote about sleep, dreams, the senses and memory.
1600s Rene Descartes puts forward idea of interactive dualism – the mind and body are 2 separate entities working together to form who we are and what we know.

4. PSYCHOLOGISTS STILL DEBATE AND STUDY MUCH OF THE SAME ISSUES THAT PHILOSOPHERS DID CENTURIES AGO. How has it changed?

5. Influence of Physiology
Studies functions and parts of living organisms.
Most responsible for helping psych become a scientific discipline.
Scientific discoveries made by physiologists helped prove that scientific methods could be applied to describe human behavior and mental processes.

6. What Might a Psychologist Research?
Development: Course of human growth and development
Learning: How and why it occurs in humans and animals
Personality: Traits, motivations, and individual differences
Sensation and Perception: How we come to know the world through our five senses
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7. What Might a Psychologist Research? (cont.)
Comparative: Study and compare behavior of different species, especially animals
Biopsychology: How behavior is related to biological processes, especially activities in the nervous system
Gender: Study differences between males and females and how they develop
Social: Human and social behavior
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8. What Might a Psychologist Research? (cont.)
Cultural: How culture affects behavior
Evolutionary: How our behavior is guided by patterns that evolved during our history
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9. Psychology Today
Biopsychology: Our behavior can be explained through physiological processes
Uses brain scans to gather data (MRI, PET)
Looks at neurotransmitters
Cognitive: Study thoughts, memory, expectations, perceptions, and other mental processes
Positive: Study of human strengths, virtues, and optimal behavior
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10. Many Flavors of Psychologists
Psychologists: Usually have masters or doctorate; Trained in methods, knowledge, and theories of psychology
Clinical Psychologists: Treat more severe psychological problems
Counseling Psychologists: Treat milder problems, such as adjustment disorders
Not all psychologists perform therapy!
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11. Other Mental Health Professionals
Psychiatrists: MD; usually use medications to treat problems; Generally do not have extensive training in providing “talk” therapy
Psychoanalysts: Receive post-PhD. or M.D. training in Freudian psychoanalysis at an institute
Counselor: Adviser who helps solve marriage, career, work, or school problems
Psychiatric Social Workers: Many have masters degrees and perform psychotherapy
Presently a very popular profession
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12. History of Psychology (Brief!): Beginnings
Wilhelm Wundt: “Father” of Psychology
1879: Set up first lab to study conscious experience
Introspection: Looking inward (i.e., examining and reporting your thoughts, feelings, etc.)
Experimental Self-Observation: Incorporates both introspection and objective measurement; Wundt’s approach
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13. History of Psychology: Structuralism
Wundt’s ideas brought to the U.S. by Tichener and renamed Structuralism
Structuralists often disagreed, and no way to prove who was correct!
Structuralists: Introspection was a poor way to answer many questions
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14. Structuralism
Theory that the structure of conscious experience could be understood by analyzing the basic elements of sensations and feelings.

15. E.B. Titchener ( )
Analyzed the intensity, clarity and quality of the parts of consciousness
Founder of structuralism
Studied with Wundt in
Germany.

16. History of Psychology: Functionalism
William James (American) inspired by Wundt
Taught A&P at Harvard
Began writing about how the mind functions to help us adapt and survive
Functionalists admired Darwin and his Theory of Natural Selection: Animals keep features through evolution that help them adapt to environments
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17. William James (1842-1910) First American psychologist
Author of the first psychology textbook, Principles of Psychology
Founder of Functionalism
“stream of consciousness”

18. Functionalism
Behavior functions to allow people and animals to adapt to their environment.
Used direct observation and introspection.
Tried to apply psychology to areas such as education, child rearing, and the work environment.

19. No longer exist! Structuralism Functionalism Limited to introspection
Focused on conscious experiences
Wanted to identify specific essential structures of consciousness
Functionalism
Added direct observation
Focused on conscious experiences
Believed consciousness was an ongoing stream of changes

20. History of Psychology: Behaviorism (1913)
Psychology must study observable behavior
John Watson
Came from Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, that demonstrated dogs learn to associate a neutral stimulus (bell) with an automatic behavior (salivating for food).
The goal was to discover the fundamental principles of learning – how behavior is acquired and modified in response to environmental influences.
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21. Behaviorist -B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
American psychologist whose brand of behaviorism focused on the role of responses in learning.
Focused on learning through reinforcement or punishment. (pigeons and rats)
Behaviorism dominated psychology for almost half of a century.

22. History of Psychology: Freud (Austria)
Psychoanalyis
Our behavior is largely influenced by our unconscious wishes, thoughts, and desires, especially sex and aggression
Freud emphasized the role of unconscious conflicts in determining behavior and personality.
Glimpses of unconscious impulses are revealed through dreams, memory blocks, slips of the tongue, and spontaneous humor.
Childhood experiences form adult personality.
Repression: When threatening thoughts are unconsciously held out of awareness
Recent research has hypothesized that our unconscious mind is partially responsible for our behaviors.
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23. History of Psychology: Humanism (1950s)
School of thought that focuses on the study of conscious experience, the individual’s freedom to choose, and the capacity for personal growth
Each person has innate goodness and is able to make free choices (contrast with Skinner and Freud)
Determinism: Behavior is determined by forces beyond our control
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24. Carl Rogers/Abraham Maslow
Prominent Humanists
Rejected idea that behavior is controlled by rewards and punishments
Stressed free will in decision making
Carl Rogers

25. Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs, proceeding through safety needs and then to psychological needs
Higher-level needs won’t become active until lower-level needs have been satisfied.
Self-actualization (Maslow): Fully developing one’s potentials and becoming the best person possible

26. Contemporary psychology
Biological Perspective
Psychodynamic Perspective
Humanistic Perspective
Behavioral Perspective
Cognitive Perspective (how mental processes influence behavior: focuses on how people process info, develop language, solve problems, and think) 1950s
Cross-Cultural Perspective (how culture influences behavior, 1980s)
Evolutionary Perspective (refers to the application of principles of evolution to explain psychological processes and phenomena, that psychological processes are subject to natural selection)
Read pgs14&15

27. What Are the Goals of Psychology?
Description of Behaviors: Naming and classifying various observable, measurable behaviors
Explain/Understand: The causes of behavior(s), and being able to state the cause(s)
Prediction: Predicting behavior accurately
Control: Altering conditions that influence behaviors in predictable ways
Positive Use: To control unwanted behaviors, (e.g., smoking, tantrums, etc.)
Negative Use: To control peoples’ behaviors without their knowledge
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28. Scientific Method
Definition: set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guide researchers in creating questions to investigate, in generating evidence, and in drawing conclusions.
Psychology is based on empirical evidence, evidence that is the result of objective observation, measurement, and experimentation.
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29. Psychologists assume…
Behavior and mental processes follow consistent patterns.
Events are explainable.
Behavior and mental processes have a cause or causes that can be understood through careful, systematic study.

30. Critical Thinking, the active process of …..
Trying to minimize the influence of preconceptions and biases while rationally evaluating evidence.
Determining the conclusions that can be drawn from evidence.
Considering alternative explanations.
Read Pg 17
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31. Steps in the Scientific Method
Formulate a hypothesis (can describe the relationship between two or more variables)that can be tested empirically.
Design the study and collect data
Descriptive Method – for observing and describing behavior, including identifying the factors that seem to be associated with a particular phenomenon. Who, what, when, where, why?s
Naturalistic observation, surveys, case studies, and correlational studies
Experimental Method – used to show how one variable causes change in a second variable. Researcher deliberately varies one factor, then measures the change produced in the second factor.
Analyze the data and draw conclusions.
Researchers use statistics to summarize, analyze, and draw conclusions. Statistics helps determine whether their results support their hypothesis. Statistically significant findings mean the results probably didn’t occur by chance.
Report the findings
Who participated
How participants were selected
How variables were operationally defined
What procedures of methods were used
How the data were analyzed
What the results seems to suggest
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32. As research findings accumulate from studies, eventually theories develop.
A system of ideas that interrelates facts and concepts, summarizes existing data, and predicts future observations
A good theory generates predictions and new hypotheses that can be tested by further research.
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33. Descriptive Methods Naturalistic Observation
Observing a person or an animal in the environment in which they/it live(s)
Problems
Observer Effect: Changes in behavior caused by an awareness of a person or animal being observed
Observer Bias: Occurs when observers see what they expect to see or record only selected details
Anthropomorphic Fallacy: Attributing human thoughts, feelings, or motives to animals, especially as a way of explaining their behavior (e.g., “Anya, my cat, is acting like that because she’s feeling depressed today.”)
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34. Correlational Studies: Find existence of a consistent, systematic relationship between two events, measures, or variables
Correlation Coefficient: Statistic ranging from –1.00 to +1.00; the sign indicates the direction of the relationship
Closer the statistic is to –1.00 or to +1.00, the stronger the relationship
Correlation of 0.00 demonstrates no relationship between the variables
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35. Correlations and Relationships (cont.)
Positive Correlation: Increases in one variable are matched by increases in the other variable
Negative Correlation: Increases in one variable are matched by decreases in the other variable
Correlation does not demonstrate causation: Just because two variables are related does NOT mean that one variable causes the other to occur
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36. Case Studies Intensive, in-depth investigation of an individual.
Most often used by clinical psychologists.
Used to investigate rare, unusual, or extreme conditions.
Case studies can provide information that can used to help explain normal behavior.

37. Surveys
A direct way to find out about the behavior, attitudes, and opinions of people.
People respond to a structured set of questions about their questions, beliefs, behaviors, or attitudes.
Researchers select a sample – a segment of the larger group or population.
A representative sample very closely parallels, or matches, the larger group on relevant characteristics, such as age, sex, race, marital status, and educational level.
Courtesy Bias: Problem in research; a tendency to give “polite” or socially desirable answers
Samples are not representative

38. The Experimental Method
To identify cause-and-effect relationships, we conduct experiments
Directly vary a condition you might think affects behavior
Create two or more groups of subjects, alike in all ways except the condition you are varying
Record whether varying the condition has any effect on behavior
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39. Variables
Definition: Any condition that can change, and might affect, experiment's outcome
Independent Variable: Condition(s) altered by the experimenter; experimenter sets their size, amount, or value; these are suspected causes for behavioral differences
Dependent Variable: Demonstrates effects that independent variables have on behavior
Extraneous Variables: Conditions that a researcher wants to prevent from affecting the outcomes of the experiment (e.g., number of hours slept before the experiment)
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40. Groups
Experimental Group: The group of subjects that gets the independent variable
Control Group: The group of subjects that gets all conditions EXCEPT the independent variable
Random Assignment: Subject has an equal chance of being in either the experimental or control group
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41. Evaluating Experiments’ Results
Statistically Significant: Results gained would occur very rarely by chance alone
Meta-analysis: Study of results of other studies
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42. Placebo Effects Placebo: A fake pill (sugar) or injection (saline)
Placebo Effect: Changes in behavior that result from belief that one has ingested a drug
Placebos alter our expectations about our own emotional and physical reactions
These expectancies then influence bodily activities
Relieve pain by getting pituitary to release endorphins
Also gain some effect through learning
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43. Controlling Placebo Effects
Single Blind Experiment: Only the subjects have no idea whether they get real treatment or placebo
Double Blind Experiment: The subjects AND the experimenters have no idea whether the subjects get real treatment or placebo
Best type of experiment if properly set up
Herbal remedies may be based on placebo effect
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44. Experimenter Effects
Definition: Changes in behavior caused by the unintended influence of the experimenter
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A prediction that leads people to act in ways to make the prediction come true
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45. The Clinical Method
Case Study: In-depth focus on all aspects of a single case
Natural Clinical Tests: Natural events, such as accidents, that provide psychological data
Survey Method: Using public polling techniques to answer psychological questions
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46. Table 1.5 – Comparison of Psychological Research Methods
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47. Pseudo-Psychologies
Pseudo means “false.” Any unfounded “system” that resembles psychology and is NOT based on scientific testing
Palmistry: Lines on your hands (palms) predict future and reveal personality
Phrenology: Personality traits revealed by shape of skull and bumps on your head
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48. Pseudo Psychologies (cont.)
Graphology: Personality revealed by your handwriting
Astrology: The positions of the stars and planets at birth determine your personality and affect your behavior
Extremely popular today (“What’s your sign?”)
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49. Pseudo Psychologies (cont.)
Barnum Effect: Always have a little something for everyone; Make sure all palm readings, horoscopes, etc. are so general that something in them will always apply to any one person! (e.g., “Crossing Over with John Edward”; Miss Cleo)
Uncritical Acceptance: Tendency to believe positive or flattering descriptions of yourself
Fallacy of Positive Instances: When we remember or notice things that confirm our expectations and forget the rest
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50. Consider the source of information
Separating Fact from Fiction (Are the Stories in the “National Enquirer” True?)
Be skeptical
Consider the source of information
Ask yourself, “Was there a control group?”
Look for errors in distinguishing between correlation and causation (are claims based on correlational results yet passed off as causations?)
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51. Single examples are not proof!
Separating Fact from Fiction (Are the Stories in the “National Enquirer” True?) (cont.)
Be sure to distinguish between observation and inference (e.g., Robert is crying, but do we know why he is crying?)
Beware of oversimplifications, especially those motivated by monetary reasons
Single examples are not proof!
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52. Ethical Guidelines for Psychological Research
Do no harm
Accurately describe risk to potential subjects
Ensure that participation is voluntary
Minimize any discomfort to participants
Maintain confidentiality
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53. Ethical Guidelines for Psychological Research (cont.)
Do not unnecessarily invade privacy
Use deception only when absolutely necessary
Remove any misconceptions caused by deception (debrief)
Provide results and interpretation to participants
Treat participants with dignity and respect
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