1. NIGERIA Part 1

2. Africa’s most populous state recently independent history of tradition-based kingdoms colonialism military dictatorship strong democracy movements coupled with tendency to totalitarian military rule vast resources, but tremendous poverty religious, regional and ethnic tension: challenge to formation of national identity legitimacy

3. The Sources of Public Authority and Political Power the ‘national question’: how should the country be governed? should it be a single nation? constitutionalism : the acceptance of a constitution as a guiding set of principles 9 constitutions since 1914 legitimacy: relative newness of country history of ethnic and religious division and conflict economic exploitation by elites use of military force strong tendency toward fragmentation rule of law vs. personalized authority of the strongman

4. in North, sharia has served as a source of legitimacy, but religious law has not transformed society 2007 election widely seen as fraudulent –frustration and cynicism in electorate –international criticism –added challenges to legitimacy

5. Political traditions 3 eras: pre-colonial, colonial and independence pre-colonial: 800-1860 –trade connections –early influence of Islam –kinship-based politics –complex political identities –democratic impulses

6. the colonial era: 1860 – 1960 –indirect authoritarian rule –interventionist state –individualism/personalization –Christianity –intensification of ethnic politics

7. post-independence: 1960 to present –parliamentary-style government replace by a presidential system –intensification of ethnic conflict –military rule –personalized rule/corruption –federalism –economic dependence on oil

8. Political Culture historic traditions -> complex modern political culture –ethnic diversity and conflict, corruption, politically active military –democratic tradition, responsive leadership patron-clientelism (prebendalism) prebendalism: the corrupt use of high-level government position to gain personal wealth patron (political leader) builds loyalty among clients (lesser elites) by granting favors denied to others state control vs. a rich civil society the sectors of society that lie outside of government control

9. political culture, cont. tension between modernity and tradition religious conflict geography: 6 population zones –NW: Hausa-Fulani, Muslim –NE: Kanuri and other smaller groups, Muslim –Middle Belt: many small groups, religious mix –SW: Yoruba, 40% Muslim, 40% Christian, 20% other –SE: Igbo, Christian (RC and Protestant) –S: Niger River delta, many small groups

10. Political and Economic Change the Pre-Colonial era: –geography and political, social and economic development northern savannah vs. forested south -> cultural diffusion –North: 1808, Fulani established Muslim state (Sokoto Caliphate) succumbed to British colonial rule, but established tradition of centralized, faith-based government –South: contact with Europeans –Christianity –slave trade

11. Political and Economic Change, cont. the Colonial Era: 1860: the British imposed indirect rule –Nigerians (south) trained to fill Euro-style bureaucracy –left northern government structures intact exacerbated regional division encouraged elitism/prebendalism –introduction of Western-style education increased both literacy and cleavages

12. Political and Economic Change, cont. Modern Nigeria: independence 1960 1966: parliamentary government replaced by military dictatorship, cycle of coups d’etat –military leaders: a history of extraconstitutional and nondemocratic rule elections plagued by fraud and violence the “national question” would Nigeria survive as a country? heightened ethnic competition and conflict post- independence institutionalization of corruption among political elites

13. Leadership Transitions, 1960 - present datesrulertype of govttransition ‘60 –’ 66 ( First Republic) Tafawa Balewa (PM) (Muslim Hausa-Fulani) RepublicCoup; Balewa assassinatied 1966Johnson Aguyi-Ironsi (Christian Igbo) Military Dictatorship Coup; Ironsi assassinated ’66- ’75Yakubu Gowon (Christian, middle belt) Military Dictatorship Coup; Gowon replaced ’75 – 76Murtala Muhammed (Muslim, Hausa-Fulani) Military Dictatorship Coup; Muhammed assassinated ’76 – ‘79Olusegun Obasanjo (Christian Yoruba) Military Dictatorship Democratic election

14. Leadership Transitions, 1960 - present datesrulertype of govttransition ’79 – ’83Shehu Shagari (Muslim Hausa- Fulani) Presidential democracy coup; Shagari replaced ’83 – ’85Muhammed Buhari (Muslim Hausa- Fulani) Military dictatorship coup; Buhari replaced ’85 – ’93Ibrahim Babangida (Muslim middle belt) Military dictatorship coup; Babangida resigned ’93 – ’98Sani Abacha (Muslim, North) Military dictatorship Abacha died ’99 – ’07Olesegun Obasanjo (civilian) Presidential democracy term limited ’07 - presentUmru Yar’AduaPresidential democracy

15. Citizens, Society and the State Challenges of democratization: –poverty –unequal income distribution –health –literacy

16. Comparative literacy rates China (2000 census)Males: 95.1%Females: 86.5% Iran (‘02 est.)Males: 83.5%Females: 70.4% Mexico (’03 est.)Males: 92.4%Females: 89.6% Nigeria (‘02 census)Males: 75.7%Females: 60.6% Russia (‘02 census)Males: 99.7%Females: 99.2% UK (‘03 est.)Males: 99%Females: 99%

17. cleavages one of the world’s most fragmented societies lack of cross-cutting cleavages sub-national cleavage -> violent conflict identity-based civil war conflicts have undermined legitimacy and governance sources of cleavage: ethnicity religion region urban/rural social class