1. Lecture(1) Outline  General Writing Concerns  Planning/Starting to Write  Effective Writing  Revising/Editing/Proofreading  Writing Essays

2. Finding Your Focus: The Writing Process I. Planning/Starting to Write

3. Everyone has a writing process. What is yours?

4. Why do you need a writing process? It can help writers to organize their thoughts. It can help writers to avoid frustration. It can help writers to use their time productively and efficiently.

5. Writing process Invention Collection Organization Drafting Revising Proofreading

6. Invention: coming up with your topic Explore the problem—not the topic Make your goals operational Generate some ideas

7. Brainstorming: coming up with ideas that interest you Listing: Political apathy Animal abuse NFL instant replay Air pollution Telemarketing scams Internet censorship NBA salary caps Paper Topics Brainstorming

8. Clustering: mapping out ideas ME Internet censorship telemar- keting scams NFL instant replay NBA political apathy three-party system salary caps sportsmanship animal abuse First Amendment Flag Burning Amend- ment

9. Collection Gathering ideas Locating and evaluating research Conducting interviews

10. Organizing: putting information in an outline OUTLINE I. Introduction A. State thesis II. Body A. Build points B. Develop ideas C. Support main claim III. Conclusion A. Reemphasize main idea

11. Drafting

12. Revising: reviewing ideas Review higher order concerns: –Clear communication of ideas –Organization of paper –Paragraph structure –Strong introduction and conclusion

13. Proofreading Review later- order concerns: –Spelling –Punctuation –Sentence structure –Documentation style

14. Proofreading tips Slowly read your paper aloud Read your paper backwards Exchange papers with a friend NOTE: Spelling check will not catch everything, and grammar checks are often wrong!

15. Writing process: find your focus Invention Collection Organization Drafting Revising Proofreading

16. II. Effective Writing Adding Emphasis Coherence Conciseness: Methods of Eliminating Wordiness

17. Non-Sexist Language Strategies for Improving Sentence Clarity (Cont’d)

18. 1. Adding Emphasis a. Punctuation Marks for Achieving Emphasis Examples: The employees were surprised by the decision,which was not to change company policy. The employees were surprised by the decision-- no change in company policy. The employees were surprised by the decision: no change in company policy.

19. b. Choice and Arrangement of Words for Achieving Emphasis  The simplest way to emphasize something is to tell readers directly that what follows is important by using such words and phrases as especially, particularly, crucially, most importantly, and above all. The inversion of the standard subject-verb- object pattern in the first sentence below into an object-subject-verb pattern in the second places emphasis on the out-of-sequence term.

20. Examples: – I'd make fifty dollars in just two hours on a busy night at the restaurant. Fifty dollars I'd make in just two hours on a busy night at the restaurant. – No one can deny that the computer has had a great effect upon the business world. Undeniably, the effect of the computer upon the business world has been great.

21. C. Sentence Position and Variation for Achieving Emphasis Example: For a long time, but not any more, Japanese corporations used Southeast Asia merely as a cheap source of raw materials, as a place to dump outdated equipment and overstocked merchandise, and as a training ground for junior executives who needed minor league experience.

22. For a long time Japanese corporations used Southeast Asia merely as a cheap source of raw materials, as a place to dump outdated equipment and overstocked merchandise, and as a training ground for junior executives who needed minor league experience. But those days have ended. (Cont’d)

23. 2. Coherence a. Repetition of a Key Term or Phrase Example: The problem with contemporary art is that it is not easily understood by most people. Modern art is deliberately abstract, and that means that contemporary art leaves the viewer wondering what she is looking at.

24. b. Synonyms Example : Myths narrate sacred history and explain sacred origins. These traditional narratives are, in short, a set of beliefs that are a very real force in the lives of the people who tell them.

25. C. Using Transitional Words Example: I like autumn, and yet autumn is a sad time of the year, too. The leaves turn bright shades of red and the weather is mild, but I can't help thinking ahead to the winter and the ice storms that will surely blow through here. In addition, that will be the season of chapped faces, too many layers of clothes to put on, and days when I'll have to shovel heaps of snow from my car's windshield.

26. 3. Conciseness a. Methods of Eliminating Wordiness Eliminate unnecessary determiners and modifiers: Example: Any particular type of dessert is fine with me. Any dessert is fine with me.

27. Balancing the budget by Friday is an impossibility without some kind of extra help. Balancing the budget by Friday is impossible without extra help (Cont’d)

28. Here's a list of some words and phrases that can often be pruned away to make sentences clearer: kind of sort of type of really basically for all intents and purposes definitely actually generally individual specific particular

29. Example For all intents and purposes, American industrial productivity generally depends on certain factors that are really more psychological in kind than of any given technological aspect. American industrial productivity depends more on psychological than on technological factors.

30. b. Change phrases into single words - The employee with ambition... - The department showing the best performance... The ambitious employee... The best-performing department... Examples

31. - Jeff Converse, our chief of consulting, suggested at our last board meeting the installation of microfilm equipment in the department of data processing. (Cont’d) At our last board meeting, chief consultant Jeff Converse suggested that we install microfilm equipment in the data processing department.

32. - As you carefully read what you have written to improve your wording and catch small errors of spelling, punctuation, and so on, the thing to do before you do anything else is to try to see where a series of words expressing action could replace the ideas found in nouns rather than verbs. As you edit, first find nominalizations that you can replace with verb phrases. (Cont’d)

33. C. Change unnecessary that, who, and which clauses into phrases Wordy - The report, which was released recently... - All applicants who are interested in the job must... - The system that is most efficient and accurate... More Concise - The recently released report... - All job applicants must... - The most efficient and accurate system...

34. D. Avoid overusing expletives at the beginning of sentences Wordy - It is the governor who signs or vetoes bills. - There are four rules that should be observed:... - There was a big explosion, which shook the windows, and people ran into the street. More Concise - The governor signs or vetoes bills. - Four rules should be observed:... - A big explosion shook the windows, and people ran into the street.

35. E. Avoid overusing noun forms of verbs Wordy The function of this department is the collection of accounts. The current focus of the medical profession is disease prevention. More Concise This department collects accounts. The medical profession currently focuses on disease prevention.

36. F. Reword unnecessary infinitive phrases Wordy - The duty of a clerk is to check all incoming mail and to record it. - A shortage of tellers at our branch office on Friday and Saturday during rush hours has caused customers to become dissatisfied with service. More Concise A clerk checks and records all incoming mail. A teller shortage at our branch office on Friday and Saturday during rush hours has caused customer dissatisfaction.

37. 4. Strategies for Improving Sentence Clarity

38. Sentence Clarity Why do we need to be concerned with sentence clarity?  To communicate effectively to the reader  To make writing persuasive  To show credibility and authority as a writer

39. Common clarity problems  Misplaced modifiers  Dangling modifiers  Passive voice

40. Misplaced Modifiers A word or phrase that causes confusion because it is located within a sentence so far away from the word(s) to which it refers

41. Misplaced Modifiers Consider the different meanings in the following sentences: The dog under the tree bit Carrie. vs. The dog bit Carrie under the tree.

42. How might you correct the following sentence? Jennifer called her adorable kitten opening the can of tuna and filled the food bowl. Better: Opening the can of tuna, Jennifer called her adorable kitten and filled the food bowl.

43. How might you correct the following sentence? Portia rushed to the store loaded with cash to buy the birthday gift. Better: Portia, loaded with cash, rushed to the store to buy the birthday gift.

44. Misplaced Modifiers Some one-word modifiers often cause confusion: almost justnearlysimply even hardlymerelyonly

45. Explain the meaning of each sentence: Almost everyone in the class passed the calculus exam. Everyone in the class almost passed the calculus exam. Which sentence indicates that everyone in the class failed the exam?

46. Explain the meaning of each sentence: John nearly earned $100. John earned nearly $100. Which sentence indicates that John earned some money?

47. Dangling modifiers A word or phrase that modifies another word or phrase that has not been stated clearly within the sentence  often occur at the beginnings and ends of sentences  often indicated by an -ing verb or a to + verb phrase

48. Dangling modifiers Having finished dinner, the football game was turned on. Having finished dinner, Joe turned on the football game.

49. Dangling modifiers  can be repaired by  placing the subject of the modification phrase as the subject of the independent clause  placing the subject of the action within the dangling phrase

50. How might you correct the following sentence? Playing solitaire on the computer for three hours, Michael’s paper was not completed. Better: Playing solitaire on the computer for three hours, Michael did not complete his paper. Better: Because Michael played solitaire on the computer for three hours, he did not complete the paper.

51. How might you correct the following sentence? Locked away in the old chest, Richard was surprised by the antique hats. Better: Locked away in the old chest, the antique hats surprised Richard. Better: The antique hats locked away in the old chest surprised Richard.

52. How might you correct the following sentence? To work as a loan officer, an education in financial planning is required. Better: To work as a loan officer, one is required to have an education in financial planning.

53. How might you correct the following sentence? Being a process that still needs to be refined, scientists are searching for a more effective plan for chemotherapy treatment. Better: Scientists are searching for a more effective plan for chemotherapy treatment, a process that still needs to be refined.

54. Passive Voice  indicates what is receiving the action rather than explaining who is doing the action  two indicators  "to be" verbs—is, are, was, were  "by ________” Examples: Mistakes were made. The cats were brushed by Laura.

55. How might you improve the following sentence? The decision that was reached by the committee was to postpone the vote. Better: The committee reached the decision to postpone the vote. Best: The committee decided to postpone the vote.

56. How might you correct the following sentence? The disk drive of the computer was damaged by the electrical surge. Better: The electrical surge damaged the disk drive of the computer. Best: The electrical surge damaged the computer's disk drive.

57. Exercises Every semester after final exams are over, I'm faced with the problem of what to do with books of lecture notes (new information). They (old) might be useful some day, but they just keep piling up on my bookcase (new). Someday, it (old) will collapse under the weight of information I might never need. Better: Lately, most movies I've seen have been merely second-rate entertainment, but occasionally there are some with worthwhile themes. The rapid disappearance of the Indian culture (new) is the topic of a recent movie (old) I saw.

58. Go from old to new information

59. Industrial spying,because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information, is increasing rapidly. Better: Because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information, industrial spying is increasing rapidly. Better: Industrial spying is increasing rapidly because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information.

60. Be careful about placement of subordinate clauses

61. One difference between television news reporting and the coverage provided by newspapers is the time factor between the actual happening of an event and the time it takes to be reported. The problem is that instantaneous coverage is physically impossible for newspapers. Better: Television news reporting differs from that of newspapers in that television, unlike newspapers, can provide instantaneous coverage of events as they happen.

62. Choose action verbs over forms of be

63. Organizing Your Essay An Argument

64. What is an argument? An argument involves the process of establishing a claim and then proving it with the use of logical reasoning, examples, and research

65. Why is organization important in building an argument? Guides an audience through your reasoning process Offers a clear explanation of each argued point Demonstrates the credibility of the writer

66. Organizing your argument Title Introduction –Thesis statement Body Paragraphs –Constructing Topic Sentences –Building Main Points –Countering the Opposition Conclusion

67. Title--why do you need one? Introduces the topic of discussion to the audience Generates reader interest in the argument

68. Creating a Title Try to grab attention by –offering a provocative image –picking up on words or examples offered in the body or conclusion of the paper –asking a question Avoid titles that are too general or lack character

69. What is an introduction? Acquaints the reader with the topic and purpose of the paper Generates the audience’s interest in the topic Offers a plan for the ensuing argument

70. Methods for Constructing an Introduction personal anecdote example-real or hypothetical question quotation shocking statistics striking image

71. What is a thesis statement? The MOST IMPORTANT SENTENCE in your paper Lets the reader know the main idea of the paper Answers the question: “What am I trying to prove?” Not a factual statement, but a claim that has to be proven throughout the paper

72. Role of the thesis statement The thesis statement should guide your reader through your argument The thesis statement is generally located in the introduction of the paper A thesis statement may also be located within the body of the paper or in the conclusion, depending upon the purpose or argument of the paper

73. Which thesis statement is the most effective for an argument about the need for V-chips in television sets? Parents, often too busy to watch television shows with their families, can monitor their children’s viewing habits with the aid of the V-chip. To help parents monitor their children’s viewing habits, the V-chip should be a required feature for television sets sold in the U.S. This paper will describe a V-chip and examine the uses of the V-chip in American-made television sets.

74. Body Paragraphs and Topic Sentences Body paragraphs build upon the claims made in the introductory paragraph(s) Organize with the use of topic sentences that illustrate the main idea of each paragraph Offering a brief explanation of the history or recent developments in your topic within the early body paragraphs can help the audience to become familiarized with your topic and the complexity of the issue

75. Body Paragraphs Paragraphs may be ordered in several ways, depending upon the topic and purpose of your argument –General to specific information –Most important point to least important point –Weakest claim to strongest claim

76. Offering a Counterargument Addressing the claims of the opposition is an important component in building a convincing argument It demonstrates your credibility as a writer--you have researched multiple sides of the argument and have come to an informed decision

77. Offering a Counterargument Counterarguments may be located at various locations within your body paragraphs You may choose to –build each of your main points as a contrast to oppositional claims –offer a counterargument after you have articulated your main claims

78. Counter arguing effectively Consider your audience when you offer your counterargument Conceding to some of your opposition’s concerns can demonstrate respect for their opinions Remain tactful yet firm –Using rude or deprecating language can cause your audience to reject your position without carefully considering your claims

79. Conclusion -- The Big Finale Your conclusion should reemphasize the main points made in your paper You may choose to reiterate a call to action or speculate on the future of your topic, when appropriate Avoid raising new claims in your conclusion