1. Element Groups (Families)
Alkali Earth
Alkaline Earth
Transition Metals
Rare Earth
Other Metals
Metalloids
Non-Metals
Halogens
Noble Gases

2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 H He
-268.6 Li Be B C N O F Ne
1347
2970
2550
4827
-195.8
-183
-246.1 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
552.9
1107
2467
2355
280
444.6
-34.6
-186 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
774
1484
2832
3287
3380
2672
1962
2750
2870
2732
2567
907
2403
2830
613
684.9
58.78
-153.4 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
688
1384
3337
4377
4927
4612
4877
3900
3727
2927
2212
765
2000
2270
1750
989.8
184
-108.1 Cs Ba * Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
678.4
1140
5400
5425
5660
5627
5027
4527
3827
2807
356.58
1457
1740
1560
962
337
-61.8 Fr Ra ** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
Uun
Uuu
Uub
677
1737 ? La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
3469
3257
3127
1900
1597
3233
3041
2562
2720
2510
1727
1466
3315 Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
3200
4790
3818
3902
3235
2607

3. Phase Diagrams- Introduction
The effect of temperature and pressure on a substance in a closed container.
Every point represents a possible combination of temperature and pressure for the system.
Three areas represent the solid, liquid, and gaseous states of the substance.

4. Along AB line: rate at which solid sublimes to form a gas=rate at which gas condenses to form a solid
Along BC line: rate at which liquid boils to form a gas=rate at which gas condenses to form a liquid
Along BD line: rate at which solid melts to form a liquid=rate at which liquid freezes to form a solid

5. The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
The relationship between the temperature of a liquid and its vapor pressure is not a straight line. The vapor pressure of water, for example, increases significantly more rapidly than the temperature of the system. This behavior can be explained with the Clausius-Clapeyron equation.
If we assume that Hvap does not depend on the temperature of the system, the Clausius-Clapeyron equation can be written in the following integrated form where C is a constant.

6. Densities of Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous Forms of Three Elements
Solid (g/cm3)
Liquid (g/cm3)
Gas (g/cm3) Ar
1.65
1.40 N2
1.026
0.8081 O2
1.426
1.149

7. PHASE DIAGRAMS
STUDY OF PHASE RELATIONSHIPS IMPORTANT IN KNOWING PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
MAP OF TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND COMPOSITION BETWEEN PHASES IN EQUILIBRIUM IN A SYSTEM
GIBBS PHASE RULE
P + F = C + 2
Eg: states of matter- gas, liquid and solid – single phase
Liquid mixture- oil and water- 2 phases
In solid , several phases depending on crystal structure
STUDY IMPORTANT IN ALLOYS
ALLOY- SUBSTANCE COMPOSED OF 2 OR MORE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
MAIN CONSTITUENT- BASE METAL
AND OTHERS ALLOYING ELEMENTS

8. CLASSIFICATION SINGLE COMPONENT- UNARY TWO COMPONENT- BINARY
THREE COMPONENT- TERNARY,
QUARTERNARY ETC.
EQUILIBRIUM APPROACHED BY VERY SLOW HEATING/COOLING

9. COOLING CURVES For pure metal or compound TEMPERATURE TIME, log scale
Cooling of Liquid
Latent heat of solidification given off during freezing-
At constant temperature
Freezing begins
Freezing ends
Liquid +
Solid
Cooling of solid
Liquid
Solid
TIME, log scale

10. Freezing with drop in temperature
COOLING CURVES
For Binary solid solutions
TEMPERATURE
Freezing with drop in temperature
TIME, log scale

11. For Binary solid solutions- composition 2 composition1
TEMPERATURE
Ts1
Ts2
Te1
Te2
TIME, log scale

12. Phase Rule
FUSION LINE ALMOST VERTICAL- VARIATION IN PRESSURE –NO EFFECT ON M.P. OF ICE
FUSION
WATER
ICE
Pressure
76cm B
VAPORISATION
30 cm
WATER VAPOUR
SUBLIMATION T A
100 50
Temperature o C

13. At ‘A’ , water vapour - 1 phase
At ‘B’ , water and water vapour co exist -2 phases
At ‘T’ , ice, water and water vapour exist – 3 phases
At ‘A’
1 + F = chemical compound H2O + 2
F = 2 …. BIVARIANT
At ‘B’
2+ F = 1 +2, F = 1… UNIVARIANT
At ‘T’
All three phases P = 3, 3 + F = 1 + 2; F = 0
INVARIANT

14. Equilibrium Diagram Case 1:
Binary Alloy with COMPLETE SOLUBILITY IN BOTH LIQUID AND SOLID PHASES in all compositions
Eg: Ag-Au Cu-Ni Ge-Si Al2O3-Cr2O3 Sb-Bi
Silver-Palladium Co-Ni Cu-Pt Fe-Pt Ni-Pt Ta-Ti
HUME ROTHERY’S RULE-
FICK’S LAWS OF DIFFUSION
FIRST LAW
SECOND LAW

15. Elements A and B in a Binary Alloy
Cooling Curves & Phase Diagram
Elements A and B in a Binary Alloy

16. Phase (Equilibrium) Diagram
Liquidus curve
L + α
Solidus curve
Composition, C (% wt of B)

17. LEVER RULE
With Fulcrum at P, weights WA and WB at the end of a lever, for equilibrium, the lever rule states:
WA / WB = b/a WB WA P a b

18. Y Liquid P1 P X Liquid + Solid Solid 47.5 16 37 58
For P: SS/LS = (37-16)/(58-37)= 1/1
For P1: SS/LS = 31.5/ 10.5= 3/1

19. Y Liquid P1 P X Liquid + Solid Solid 31.5/ 10.5= 3 47.5 16 37 58
= (37-16)/(58-37)

22. The structures shown are at NON EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS

23. Nickel Rich Solid Solution
60% Ni, 40 % Cu- Liquid Phase
Solid Solution, with L and S phases
Nickel Rich Solid Solution

24. At A: 60/40 composition - SS formed as with B At X, L + α, α with SS B1, rich in Ni, LS rich in Cu At B2: 60/40 composition- SS formed as (60/40)

25. Liquidus A
Solidus Cu Ni Ni
60 Ni/40 Cu

26. TIE LINE

27. If fl and fs are the liquid and solid fractions,
There are Three variables, one of these can be chosen as independent
If fl and fs are the liquid and solid fractions,

28. At A: 60/40 composition - SS formed as with B At X, L + α, α with SS B1, rich in Ni, LS rich in Cu At B2: 60/40 composition- SS formed as (60/40)

29. Case 2: Binary Alloy with COMPLETE SOLUBILITY IN LIQUID STATE in all compositions, but COMPLETELY INSOLUBLE IN THE SOLID STATE
A very doubtful situation in practice, since most solid metals appear to dissolve small quantities of other metals
In Bismuth-Cadmium, mutal solid solubility is negligible.
Bi- heavy, brittle- positioned near to non metals in periodic table- Rhombic type structure-covalent bond
Cadmium- HCP-

30. Bismuth- Cadmium Equilibrium Diagram

31. Te
40Cd/60Bi
When two metals show complete solubility in liquid state, and complete insolubility in the solid state,they do so by crystallising out as alternate layers of the two pure metals. This laminated structure termed as EUTECTIC

32. INVARIANT REACTION 40Cd/60Bi
Te (EUTECTIC Temperature)
40Cd/60Bi
When two metals show complete solubility in liquid state, and complete insolubility in the solid state, they do so by crystallising out as alternate layers of the two pure metals. This laminated structure termed as EUTECTIC

33. At E, solid Cadmium (40%) and solid Bismuth(60%) co-exist EUTECTIC
A: Molten homogeneous alloy – 1 phase with 2 components, Bi and Cd
1+F = 2 +1 (only temperature is the variable, not pressure) , F=2
B: 2 + F = 2 + 1, F= 1
C: 3 + F = 2 + 1, F=0
At E, solid Cadmium (40%) and solid Bismuth(60%) co-exist EUTECTIC

34. Eutectic is considered as an intimate mixture of two metals
Phase Rule applied, P+F = C+ 1
3 + F = 2 +1, F = 0

35. Cooling curve for Eutectic (similar to pure metal)

36. For compositions to left /right of Eutectic
Temperature o C
Time
For compositions to left /right of Eutectic

37. HUME ROTHERY’S RULE

38. Gold- Silver, Copper- Nickel, Germanium- Silicon, Antimony- Bismuth,
Aluminium Oxide- Chromium Oxide etc.
are examples

39. FICK’S LAWS OF DIFFUSION
Mass Flow Process by which atoms (molecules) change their positions relative to their neighbours in a given phase under the influence of thermal energy and gradient :

40. FICK’S LAWS OF DIFFUSION

41. FIRST LAW If J = flux flow / unit area per unit time,
dn/dt = no. of moles of B atoms crossing per unit time
D= Diffusion coefficient
A= Planar area
dc/dx= concentration gradient
If J = flux flow / unit area per unit time,

42. SECOND LAW
If D is independent of concentration,

43. INVARIANT REACTIONS

44. Case 3: Two metals completely soluble in all proportions in liquid state, but partially soluble in solid state
Melting Point of Lead:3270C
Melting Point of Tin: 2320C
Eutectic Temperature: 1830C
Eutectic Composition: 62% Sn, 38%Pb
Max. solid solubility tin in lead at 1830C: 19.5% tin
Max. Solid solubility of lead in tin at 1830C: 2.6% lead
Eutectic of two solid solutions α and β (instead of two metals) form

45. Melting Point of Tin (Pb) : 2320C Melting Point of Lead (Sn) :3270C
Eutectic Temperature: 1830C
Eutectic Composition: 38%Pb, 62% Sn
Max. solid solubility tin in lead at 1830C: 19.5% tin
Max. Solid solubility of lead in tin at 1830C: 2.6% lead

46. Liquid solubility of salt in water & partial solid solubility of one metal in another- ( (similarity schematically represented)