1. Other Plant Tissue Topics

2. Somaclonal Variation Somaclonal variation is a general phenomenon of all plant regeneration systems that involve a callus phase There are two general types: –Heritable, genetic changes (alter the DNA) –Stable, but non-heritable changes (alter gene expression, epigenetic) With or without mutagen

3. Somaclonal/Mutation Breeding Advantages: Screen very high populations (cell based) Can apply selection to single cells Disadvantages: Many mutations are non-heritable Requires dominant mutation (or double recessive mutation); most mutations are recessive –Can avoid this constraint by not applying selection pressure in culture, but you lose the advantage of high through-put screening –have to grow out all regenerated plants, produce seed, and evaluate the M 2

4. Somaclonal Breeding Procedures Use plant cultures as starting material –Idea is to target single cells in multi-cellular culture –Usually suspension culture, but callus culture can work Optional: apply physical or chemical mutagen Apply selection pressure to culture? –Target: very high kill rate, you want very few cells to survive, so long as selection is effective Regenerate whole plants from surviving cells

5. Requirements for Somaclonal Breeding Effective screening procedure – Most mutations are deleterious » With fruit fly, the ratio is ~800:1 deleterious to beneficial – Most mutations are recessive » Must screen M 2 or later generations » Consider using heterozygous plants? » Haploid plants seem a reasonable alternative if possible – Very large populations are required to identify desired mutation: » Can you afford to identify marginal traits with replicates & statistics? Estimate: ~10,000 plants for single gene mutant Clear Objective – Can’t expect to just plant things out and see what happens; relates to having an effective screen – This may be why so many early experiments failed

6. Introduction into suspension + Plate out Sieve out lumps 12 Initial high density Subculture and sieving

7. Synchronization Cold treatment: 4 o C Starvation: deprivation of an essential growth compound, e.g. N →accumulation in G1 Use of DNA synthesis inhibitors: thymidine, 5-fluorodeoxyuridine, hydroxyurea Colchicine method: arresting the cells in metaphase stage, measured in terms of mitotic index (% cells in the mitotic phase)

8. Selection Select at the level of the intact plant Select in culture –single cell is selection unit –possible to plate up to 1,000,000 cells on a Petri- dish. –progressive selection over a number of phases

9. Selection Strategies Positive Negative Visual Analytical Screening

10. Positive selection Add into medium a toxic compound e.g. hydroxy proline, kanamycin Only those cells able to grow in the presence of the selective agent give colonies Plate out and pick off growing colonies. Possible to select one colony from millions of plated cells in a days work. Need a strong selection pressure - get escapes

11. Negative selection Add in an agent that kills dividing cells e.g. chlorate / BUdR. Plate out leave for a suitable time, wash out agent then put on growth medium. All cells growing on selective agent will die leaving only non-growing cells to now grow. Useful for selecting auxotrophs.

12. Visual selection Only useful for colored or fluorescent compounds e.g. shikonin, berberine, some alkaloids Plate out at about 50,000 cells per plate Pick off colored / fluorescent- expressing compounds (cell compounds?) Possible to screen about 1,000,000 cells in a days work.

13. Analytical Screening Cut each piece of callus in half One half subcultured Other half extracted and amount of compound determined analytically (HPLC/ GCMS/ ELISA)

14. Targets for Somaclonal Variation Herbicide resistance and tolerance Specific amino acid accumulators –Screen for specific amino acid production –e.g.Lysine in cereals Abiotic stress tolerance –Add or subject cultures to selection agent– e.g.: salt, temperature stress Disease resistance –Add toxin or culture filtrate to growth media

16. T-DNA Tagging T-DNA is inherited as a single dominant gene locus Insertion of the T-DNA can result in a mutation Large T-DNA tag populations have been generated – a primary goal is to “disrupt” the function (mutate) every gene, it is estimated that~300,000 random insertions will saturate the genome with mutations “Tag” – insertion of the T-DNA “tags” the region in the genome because the T-DNA sequence is known and it can be located in the genome

20. Embryo Culture

21. Embryo Culture Uses Rescue F 1 hybrids from wide crosses Overcome seed dormancy, usually with addition of hormone (GA) to medium To overcome immaturity in seeds –To speed generations in a breeding program –To rescue a cross or self (valuable genotype)

23. Haploid Plant Production Embryo rescue of interspecific crosses –Bulbosum method Anther culture/Microspore culture –Culturing of anthers or pollen grains (microspores) –Derive a mature plant from a single microspore Ovule culture –Culturing of unfertilized ovules (macrospores)

24. History –1964, 1966 Datura innoxia (Guha and Maheshwari) –1967 Nicotiana tabacum (Nitsch) Critical factor - change in developmental pattern from mature pollen to embryogenesis Androgenesis

25. Factors influencing androgenesis Genotype of donor plants Anther wall factors Culture medium and culture density Stage of microspore or pollen development Effect of temperature and/or light Physiological status of donor plant

28. Pollen mother cell Tetrad Pollen forming

32. Bulbosum Method Hordeum vulgare Barley 2n = 2X = 14 Hordeum bulbosum Wild relative 2n = 2X = 14 Haploid Barley 2n = X = 7 H. Bulbosum chromosomes eliminated X Embryo Rescue ↓ This was once more efficient than microspore culture in creating haploid barley Now, with an improved culture media (sucrose replaced by maltose), microspore culture is much more efficient (~2000 plants per 100 anthers)

33. Haploids can be induced from ovules The number of ovules is less and thus is used less than anther culture May be by organogenesis or embryogenesis Used in plant families that do not respond to androgenesis –Liliaceae –Compositae Ovule Culture

34. Haploids Typically weak, sterile plant Usually want to double the chromosomes, creating a dihaploid plant with normal growth & fertility Chromosomes can be doubled by –Colchicine treatment –Spontaneous doubling

35. Protoplasts Created by degrading the cell wall using enzymes Very fragile

36. Protoplasts can be induced to fuse with one another: Electrofusion: A high frequency AC field is applied between 2 electrodes immersed in the suspension of protoplasts- this induces charges on the protoplasts and causes them to arrange themselves in lines between the electrodes. They are then subject to a high voltage discharge which causes their membranes to fuse where they are in contact. Polyethylene glycol (PEG): causes agglutination of many types of small particles, including protoplasts which fuse when centrifuged in its presence Addition of calcium ions at high pH values

37. Uses for Protoplast Fusion Combine two complete genomes – Another way to create allopolyploids Partial genome transfer – Exchange single or few traits between species – May or may not require ionizing radiation Genetic engineering – Micro-injection, electroporation, Agrobacterium Transfer of organelles – Unique to protoplast fusion – The transfer of mitochondria and/or chloroplasts between species

38. = chloroplast = mitochondria = nucleus Fusion heterokaryon cybrid hybrid

39. Identifying Desired Fusions Complementation selection – Can be done if each parent has a different selectable marker (e.g. antibiotic or herbicide resistance), then the fusion product should have both markers Fluorescence-activated cell sorters – First label cells with different fluorescent markers; fusion product should have both markers Mechanical isolation – Tedious, but often works when you start with different cell types Mass culture – Basically, no selection; just regenerate everything and then screen for desired traits

40. Germplasm Preservation Extension of micropropagation techniques: Two methods: 1. Slow growth techniques –↓Temp., ↓Light, media supplements (osmotic inhibitors, growth retardants), tissue dehydration, etc –Medium-term storage (1 to 4 years) 2. Cryopreservation –Ultra low temperatures. Stops cell division & metabolic processes –Very long-term (indefinite?)

41. Why not seeds? Some crops do not produce viable seeds Some seeds remain viable for a limited duration only and are recalcitrant to storage Seeds of certain species deteriorate rapidly due to seed borne pathogens Some seeds are very heterozygous not suitable for maintaining true to type genotypes Effective approach to circumvent the above problems may be application of cryopreservation technology

42. Cryogenic explants: Undifferentiated plant cells Embryonic suspension Callus Pollen Seeds Somatic embryos Shoot apices

43. Cryopreservation Requirements: Preculturing–Usually a rapid growth rate to create cells with small vacuoles and low water content Cryoprotection–Glycerol, DMSO, PEG, etc…, to protect against ice damage and alter the form of ice crystals Freezing–The most critical phase; one of two methods: Slow freezing allows for cytoplasmic dehydration Quick freezing results in fast intercellular freezing with little dehydration

44. Cryopreservation Requirements Storage –Usually in liquid nitrogen (-196 o C) to avoid changes in ice crystals that occur above -100 o C Thawing –Usually rapid thawing to avoid damage from ice crystal growth Recovery –Thawed cells must be washed of cryo-protectants and nursed back to normal growth –Avoid callus production to maintain genetic stability

54. Synthetic Seeds