1. Lecture 1: What is a Modern Computer
Computer Evolution
Computer Components
Computer Organization vs. Computer Architecture

2. Generation Zero: Mechanical Calculating Machines (1642 - 1945)
Calculating Clock - Wilhelm Schickard ( ).
First mechanical calculator, add and subtract numbers with as many as six digits.
Pascaline - Blaise Pascal ( ).
Addition with carry and subtraction.
Difference Engine - Charles Babbage ( ), also designed but never built the Analytical Engine.
Based on a calculating technique called the method of difference
The Analytical Engine included several components associated with modern computers: an arithmetic processing unit to perform calculations, a memory, and input and output devices.
“the father of computing”
Punched card tabulating machines - Herman Hollerith ( ).
Hollerith cards were commonly used for computer input well into the 1970s.

3. The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers (1945 - 1953)
Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC) ( ) solved systems of linear equations.
The first completely electronic computer
John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry of Iowa State University.
Thermionic emission: the follow of electrons from negatively charged cathode to the positively charged anode.

4. The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers (1945 - 1953)
The ENIAC was the first all-electronic, general-purpose digital computer.
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC)
John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert
University of Pennsylvania, 1946
The IBM 650 first mass-produced computer. (1955)
It was phased out in 1969.

5. The Second Generation: Transistorized Computers (1954 - 1965)
IBM 7094 (scientific) and 1401 (business)
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-1
Univac 1100
Control Data Corporation 1604.
. . . and many others.
Transistor: the follow of electrons in the solid medium.
The vacuum tubes are not very dependable.
Transistors consume less power than vacuum tubes, are smaller, and work more reliably.

6. The Third Generation: Integrated Circuit Computers (1965 - 1980)
Multiple transistors were integrated onto one chip.
The Third Generation: Integrated Circuit Computers ( )
IBM 360
DEC PDP-8 and PDP-11
Cray-1 supercomputer
. . . and many others.
By this time, IBM had gained overwhelming dominance in the industry.

7. The Fourth Generation: VLSI Computers (1980 - ????)
Very large scale integrated circuits (VLSI) have more than 10,000 components per chip.
Enabled the creation of microprocessors.
The first was the 4-bit Intel 4004.
Later versions, such as the 8080, 8086, and 8088 spawned the idea of “personal computing.”

8. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
April 22, 2017
Computer Evolution
Electronics technology continues to evolve
Increased capacity and performance
Reduced cost
Year
Technology
Relative performance/cost
1951
Vacuum tube 1
1965
Transistor 35
1975
Integrated circuit (IC)
900
1995
Very large-scale Integrated Circuit
2,400,000
2013
Ultra large-scale Integrated Circuit
250,000,000,000
Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology

9. Moore’s Law Moore’s Law (1965) Contemporary version:
Gordon Moore, Intel founder
“The density of transistors in an integrated circuit will double every year.”
Contemporary version:
“The density of silicon chips doubles every 18 months.”
But this “law” cannot hold forever ...

10. Rock’s Law Rock’s Law Arthur Rock, Intel financier
“The cost of capital equipment to build semiconductors will double every four years.”
In 1968, a new chip plant cost about $12,000.
At the time, $12,000 would buy a nice home in the suburbs.
An executive earning $12,000 per year was “making a very comfortable living.”

11. Rock’s Law
Rock’s Law
In 2012, a chip plants under construction cost well over $5 billion.
For Moore’s Law to hold, Rock’s Law must fall, or vice versa. But no one can say which will give out first.
$5 billion is more than the gross domestic product of some small countries, including Barbados, Mauritania, and Rwanda.

12. Moore’s Law Exercise
It was found that the number of transistors on various chips made by Intel could be approximated by y = 2336(1.39)x, where x = 0 corresponds to 1971.
What is the doubling time for the function y = 2336(1.39)x?
Suppose a function of the form y = y0ax, where x is in years, describes a quantity that doubles every 18 months. What is the value of a?

13. Moore’s Law – Exercise Solution
It was found that the number of transistors on various chips made by Intel could be approximated by y = 2336(1.39)x, where x = 0 corresponds to 1971.
What is the doubling time for the function y = 2336(1.39)x?
Hint: (1.39)x =2 => x≈ 2.1 years
Suppose a function of the form 𝑦 = 𝑦0𝑎𝑥, where 𝑥 is in years, describes a quantity that doubles every 18 months. What is the value of 𝑎?
Hint: 𝑎1.5 =2 => a≈ 1.59

14. What is a Modern Computer
A modern computer is an electronic, digital, general purpose computing machine that automatically follows a step-by-step list of instructions to solve a problem.
This step-by-step list of instructions that a computer follows is also called an algorithm or a computer program.

15. Computer Components
At the most basic level, a computer is a device consisting of three pieces:
A processor to interpret and execute programs
A memory to store both data and programs
A mechanism for transferring data to and from the outside world.

16. An Example System What does it all mean?? Consider this advertisement:
MHz??
L1 Cache??
MB??
PCI??
USB??
What does it all mean??

17. Measures of Capacity and Speed
Typical measures of capacity: KB, MB, GB, TB
Typical measures of speed: kb/s, Mb/s, Gb/s, MHz, GHz
Prefix
Symbol
Power of 10
Power of 2
Kilo K
1 thousand = 103
210=1024
Mega M
1 million = 106
220
Giga G
1 billion = 109
230
Tera T
1 trillion= 1012
240
Peta P
1 quadrillion = 1015
250
Exa E
1 quintillion = 1018
260
Zetta Z
1 sexitillion = 1021
270
Yotta Y
1 septillion = 1024
280
Whether a metric refers to a power of 10 or a power of 2 typically depends upon what is being measured.

18. Measures of Processor Speed and Storage
Byte = a unit of storage
1KB = 210 = 1024 Bytes
1MB = 220 = 1,048,576 Bytes
Main memory (RAM) is measured in MB
Disk storage is measured in GB for small systems, TB for large systems.
Hertz = clock cycles/second (frequency)
1MHz = 1,000,000Hz
Processor speeds are measured in MHz or GHz.
Clock frequency is the reciprocal of cycle time.
A bus operating at 133MHz has a cycle time of 7.52 𝑛𝑠:
133× cycles/second is equivalent to
1 133× cycles/second =7.52 𝑛𝑠/cycle

19. Measures of Time and Space
Typical measures of Time: 𝑚𝑠, 𝜇𝑠
Typical measures of space: 𝑚𝑚, 𝜇𝑚, 𝑛𝑚
Prefix
Symbol
Power of 10
Power of 2
Milli 𝑚
1 thousandth = 10-3
2-10
Micro 𝜇
1 millionth = 10-6
2-20
Nano 𝑛
1 billionth = 10-9
2-30
Pico 𝑝
1 trillionth= 10-12
2-40
Femto 𝑓
1 quadrillionth = 10-15
2-50
Atto 𝑎
1 quintillionth = 10-18
2-60
Zepto 𝑧
1 sexitillionth = 10-21
2-70
Yocto 𝑦
1 septillionth = 10-24
2-80
Generally, negative powers refer to powers of 10, not powers of 2.

20. Measures of Time and Space
Millisecond = 1 thousandth of a second
Hard disk drive access times are often 10 to 20 milliseconds.
Nanosecond = 1 billionth of a second
Main memory access times are often 50 to 70 nanoseconds.
Micron (micrometer) = 1 millionth of a meter
Circuits on computer chips are measured in microns.

21. Exercises 1 second = milliseconds 1 second = microseconds
1 millisecond = nanoseconds
1 microsecond = milliseconds
1 nanoseconds = microseconds
1 gigabyte = kilobytes
1 megabyte = kilobytes
1 gigabyte = megabytes
20 megabytes = bytes
2 gigabytes = kilobytes

22. Exercises Solution 1 second = 1000 milliseconds
1 second = 1,000, microseconds
1 millisecond = ,000, nanoseconds
1 milliseconds = 1, microseconds
1 microseconds = 1, nanoseconds
1 GB = 1,000,000 (or 230/210=220) KBs
1 MB = 1,000 (or 220/210=210) KBs
1 GB = 1,000 (or 230/220=210) MBs
20 MBs = 20,000,000 or (or 20 * 220) Bytes
2 GBs = 2,000,000(or 231/210=221) KBs