2. MICROEVOLUTION VS. MACROEVOLUTION Microevolution: survival through the inheritance of favorable characteristicssurvival through the inheritance of favorable characteristics –mutations –selection Macroevolution: progression of biodiversity through geological time –speciation –extinction

3. MICROEVOLUTION Evolutionary Mechanisms Types of Natural Selection Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

4. WHAT IS MICROEVOLUTION? Traces generational changes in a population of organisms Changes eh? –Allelic frequency changes within a gene pool!

6. WHAT LEADS TO CHANGES IN THE GENE POOL OF A POPULATION? SMALL POPULATION SIZE (small pop  frequencies) toss a coin to prove it.

7. MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION GENETIC DRIFT (random/chance events that change the gene pool of a small population) examples: natural disasters

8. 2 TYPES OF GENETIC DRIFT MECHANISMS Genetic Bottleneck dramatic decrease in pop size due to : catastrophes predation disease, etc.

11. Founder Effect migration leads to changes in allele frequencies from population of origin

15. WHAT ELSE CAUSES GENE POOL CHANGES ? GENE FLOW immigration emigration

16. EX OF GENE FLOW IN HUMANS Frequency of Rh- allele among Africans: 63% Frequency of Rh- allele among African-Americans 45% Frequency of Rh- allele among White European population 3%

17. MUTATIONS may produce a selective advantage may produce deleterious effects may be harmless

18. NATURAL SELECTION! increases/decreases allele frequencies due to environmental impact. Ex:English Peppered Moths

19. NON-RANDOM MATING individuals choose based upon traits (vertebrates) individuals “choose” based upon physical proximity (invertebrates)

20. OTHER FORMS OF NON- RANDOM MATING: INBREEDING –Proximity issues SEXUAL SELECTION: 1.Male competition: # offspring  fitness 2.Female choice: quality offspring  fitness

21. SEXUAL SELECTION Picky females, show-off males…

22. MICROEVOLUTION REVIEW Changes in the GENE POOL! Caused by: –Gene Flow –Natural Selection –Mutations –Non-Random Mating Sexual Selection Inbreeding

23. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SELECTION Selection increases the adaptive qualities of a population for the environment in which it lives. Types of Selection: Natural Selection determined by phenotype selection toward phenotypes that improve fitness

24. SUBDIVISIONS OF NATURAL SELECTION… Stabilizing Selection Eliminates individuals with extreme traits. Results in decreased variation

25. Directional Selection Favors traits at ONE extreme ex: resistance to insecticides

26. DIRECTIONAL SELECTION

27. Disruptive Selection Selection toward BOTH extremes. Extreme traits are favored, common traits are NOT! Results in major divisions in population! What might result?

28. DISRUPTIVE SELECTION

29. ARTIFICIAL SELECTION Directional selection determined by humans

31. CAUSES OF VARIATION Mutation is the ultimate source of variation Two major types of mutations: –Gene mutations –Chromosome mutations

32. GENE MUTATIONS Addition / Insertion Deletion Substitution Inversion

34. SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF MUTATIONS Gene mutations –PKU (phenylketonuria) –CF (cystic fibrosis) Chromosome mutation –Klinefelter syndrome (male with 47,XXY karyotype)

35. ONCE MUTATIONS HAVE ARISEN, FURTHER VARIATION RESULTS FROM: Recombination of alleles during meiosis Recombination of alleles during fertilization

36. ONCE GENETIC VARIATION HAS ARISEN, THERE IS ALSO PHENOTYPIC VARIATION. Recall that, according to Darwin’s Theory, due to competition within populations, there is … Differential Reproduction of Selected Phenotypes

37. GREAT EXAMPLE OF DIFFERENTIAL REPRODUCTION OF SELECTED PHENOTYPES:

38. ULTIMATE RESULT OF EVOLUTION Change in the genetic composition (gene pool) of a population.

39. RELATED CAUSES OF GENETIC VARIATION Sexual Reproduction! Diploidy Outbreeding

40. MINORITY ADVANTAGE… 50/50 Sex Ratio Predation (more common phenotype preferred by predator) The Lefty Hypothesis 10-15 % general population >50% contact sports (esp. males)

41. REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION Prezygotic Temporal isolation Behavioral isolation Mechanical isolation Ecological isolation Gametic isolation Postzygotic Hybrid inviability Hybrid sterility Hybrid breakdown

42. ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION

43. SYMPATRIC SPECIATION

44. GRADUALISM Species A evolves to become species B. LONG, GRADUAL process!

45. PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM Evolution is Slow with brief periods of rapid development of new species.

47. THE HARDY WEINBERG LAW If allele frequencies for a population do not change… NO EVOLUTION IS OCCURRING! Genetic Equilibrium Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium

48. GENETIC EQUILIBRIUM OCCURS ONLY IF THERE IS… 1. A large breeding population A large breeding population 2. Random mating Random mating 3. No change in allelic frequency due to mutation No change in allelic frequency due to mutation 4. No immigration or emigration No immigration or emigration 5. No natural selection No natural selection

49. EQUILIBRIUM REQUIRES… Large Population Size (laws of probability must apply) Isolation of Population (no immigration/emigration to/from other populations) NO MUTATIONS ALLOWED! NO NATURAL SELECTION ! all traits must be selectively neutral Mating Must Be RANDOM equal probabilities of mating btwn genotypes

53. IS HW EQUILIBRIUM POSSIBLE? YES ? / NO ? WHY / WHY NOT??

54. http://zoology.okstate.edu/zoo_lrc/biol1114 /tutorials/Flash/life4e_15-6-OSU.swfhttp://zoology.okstate.edu/zoo_lrc/biol1114 /tutorials/Flash/life4e_15-6-OSU.swf

55. THE HARDY-WEINBERG EQUATION Given one locus with two alleles (A,a) the frequency of either allele is described by a number from zero to one: allele absent from pop  freq = 0 same allele in all indiv in pop  freq = 1

56. WHAT IF BOTH ALLELES ARE PRESENT IN A POPULATION? Frequency of both alleles is equal to p + q = 1 [p = dominant allele (A)] [q = recessive allele (a)] Knowing the frequency of one allele allows for the calculation of the other… p = 1- q ; q = 1 - p

57. If p+q=1, then (p+q) 2 = 1. Expand it and get… p 2 + 2pq + q 2 = 1

58. WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN GENOTYPICALLY? p 2 = frequency of AA 2pq = frequency of Aa q 2 = frequency of aa

59. PROBLEM 1 In pigs, the allele for black coat (b) is recessive to the allele for pink coat (B).

60. WHAT % OF PIGS ARE HETEROZYGOUS FOR PINK COAT?

61. PROBLEM 2 In a certain population of 1000 fruit flies, 640 have red eyes while the remainder have sepia eyes. The sepia eye trait is recessive to red eyes. How many individuals would you expect to be homozygous for red eye color ?

62. PROBLEM 3 Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a human metabolic disorder that results in mental retardation if it is untreated in infancy. In the United States, one out of approximately 10,000 babies is born with the disorder. Approximately what percent of the population are heterozygous carriers of the recessive PKU allele?

63. IF 9% OF AN AFRICAN POPULATION IS BORN WITH A SEVERE FORM OF SICKLE-CELL ANEMIA (SS), WHAT PERCENTAGE OF THE POPULATION WILL BE MORE RESISTANT TO MALARIA BECAUSE THEY ARE HETEROZYGOUS(SS) FOR THE SICKLE-CELL GENE?