1. The Scientific Revolution
Chapter 22
Section 1
Pages

2. Main Idea
In the mid 1500s, scientists began to question accepted beliefs and make new theories based on experimentation.
Scientists’ questioning led to the development of the scientific method still in use today.

3. Terms and Names Scientific Revolution Nicolaus Copernicus
Heliocentric theory
Johannes Kepler
Galileo Galilei
Scientific method
Francis Bacon
René Descartes
Isaac Newton

4. The Roots of Modern Science
Before 1500, scholars referred to:
The Greeks
The Romans
The Bible
Aristotle was seen as the ultimate authority in many areas.

5. Aristotle 4 Elements Objects move in straight lines Specific Gravity
Earth down, fire up
Heavens move in perfect circle
Aither/ether
Unchanging
Heavier objects fall faster
Aristotle

6. The Medieval View
Geocentric Theory =The earth is a fixed object in the center of the universe.
This idea was shared by Aristotle, Ptolemy, and contemporary Christian doctrine.

8. Ptolemy

11. The basic elements of Ptolemaic astronomy, showing a planet on an epicycle with an eccentric deferent and an equant point.

12. Council of Trent (1545-63) Met in response to the Reformation
Also charged with revising the Calendar
Calendar based on lunar cycles with intercalary months
19-year cycle
Did not correspond with Jewish lunar calendar
In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII determined Oct. 4 was to be followed by Oct. 15
Here’s why. . .

13. A New Way of Thinking
The Scientific Revolution involved careful observation and a willingness to question accepted beliefs.

14. The Scientific Revolution
Adds to the sense that humans can know
Suggests Humans are perfectible
Reverses Thomas Aquinas’ formulation on the compatibility of science and religion
Moves reason & scientific method into social realm

15. Medieval universities add courses in astronomy, physics, and mathematics based on translated works from Muslim scholars.

16. Renaissance scholars discover classical manuscripts.
The printing press speeds up the spread of the world’s knowledge.

17. Age of Exploration Fuels Research
Navigators need new instruments.
New discoveries don’t always agree with accepted beliefs.

18. A Revolutionary Model of the Universe
Heliocentric Theory
The sun is at the center of the universe.

19. Heliocentric Model Aristarchus of Samos (310?-250? BC)
Greek astronomer
The first to assert that the earth revolves around the sun.

21. Nicolaus Copernicus Studies stars and planets for over 25 years.
Develops the heliocentric view.
Did not publish his findings until the year of his death. (1543)

22. Tycho Brahe Danish astronomer.
Records more information to support the heliocentric theory.

24. Tycho Brahe's Nose And The Story Of His Pet Moose
<<Since the autumn 1566 Tycho Brahe was studying at the university of Rostock in Germany.
Here happened an accident that is very famous.
A part of the bridge of his nose was cut off in a duel by rapiers, and he had a metal piece attached in its place.
This gave Tycho Brahe a very special look for the rest of his life.
Gassendi writes:
"The 10th of december 1566 there was a dance at Lucas Bacmeisters house in the connection to a wedding. Lucas Bacmeister was a professor of theology at the univeristy of Rostock where Tycho studied. Among the guests were Tycho Brahe and another danish nobleman, Manderup Parsberg. They started an argument and they separated in anger. The 27th of december this argument started again, and in the evening of the 29th of december a duel was held. It was around 7 in the evening and in darkness. Parsberg gives Tycho a cut over his nose that took away almost the front part of his nose. Tycho had an artificial nose made, not from wax, but from an alloy of gold and silver[*] and put it on so skillfully, that it looked like a real nose Wilhelm Janszoon Blaeu, who spent time with Tycho for nearly two years, also said that Tycho used to carry a small box with a paste or glue, with which he often would put on the nose."
Gassendi also writes that Laurus (a professor in Perugia, and later protonotarius for the pope) gives the reason for the argument between Tycho and Parsberg in one of his letters. The reason should have been an argument about who was most skilled in mathmatics. However, Norlind points out that Gassendi has either received a wrong account of this letter, or misinterpreted it, because Laurus only writes that "Not so long ago, Tycho Brahe and a danish nobleman had competed in studying mathematics and other higher sciences". There is nothing mentioned however that this should have been the reason for the argument and later the duel. Gassendis statement that it was an argument about who was the most skilled mathematician has however been cited many times in later biographies.
The hostility between Tycho and Parsberg was however not lasting, and Parsberg was one of Tychos supporters under the danish king Christian IV.
[*] Per Sörbom adds in "Tycho Brahe - a passionate astronomer" (see links) that when Tycho Brahe's grave was opened June , there were clear green marks at the front of his cranium, so the metal piece of his artificial nose must have had a significant amount of copper also.>>
Tycho Brahe's Pet Moose
<<Another famous story about Tycho Brahe is about his tame moose. Gassendi (see links) is one of the biographers who writes about this. The following is an edited translation from Gassendi.
Lantgrave Wilhelm of Kassel in Germany, with whom Tycho Brahe had an extensive mail correspondence and astronomical discussions, asked Tycho in a letter 1591 about an animal he had heard about called "Rix", which was faster than a deer, but with smaller horns. Tycho replied that such an animal did not exist, but maybe he meant the norwegian animal called reindeer. Tycho wrote that he would check further details about such animals and if he could perhaps send one. He wrote that he had a young moose, that he could send if the Lantgrave would like. The Lantgrave replied that he had owned reindeers before but they had died of the heat, he also had a moose, which was tame and followed him like a dog. He would gladly accept a tame moose from Tycho, and would in such case reward Tycho with a riding horse for the trouble.
Tycho replies that he would order additional moose, and he would have sent his tame one, had it not died shortly before. It had been transported to the castle of Landskrona, a city close to Hven, to entertain a nobleman there. But it had happened that during the dinner, the moose had ascended the castle stairs and drunk of the beer in such amounts, that it had fallen down the stairs, and broken a leg. Despite the best care, the moose had died shortly thereafter.>>

26. Tycho Crater on the moon.

27. Johannes Kepler Brahe’s assistant
Mathematical laws apply to the orbits of planets.
Planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits.

29. Galileo Galilei
Falling objects accelerate at a fixed and predictable rate.
Disproved Aristotle’s theory that heavier objects fall faster than lighter ones.
Improved the telescope.
Discovered the moons of Jupiter.
Supported the heliocentric theory.

30. Conflict With the Church
Galileo publishes works supporting Copernicus and Ptolemy.
Summoned to stand trial before the Inquisition. (1633)
Forced to recant his published work.

31. “But it does move……..
Pope Paul V

32. Pope John Paul II
Oooops!!!Sorry Dude!!
On October 31, 1992, the Pope officially apologized to Galileo and admitted he was right.

33. Galileo Spacecraft
Galileo Spacecraft was the first Planet Jupiter Obiter and the first outer solar system orbiter. It was launched by the Space Shuttle on 18th October, 1989 towards Planet Jupiter. Galileo Spacecraft consisted of an orbiter and probe. The probe was released into Planet Jupiter atmosphere on the 13th, July, The Galileo Spacecraft mission ended on 12 September 2003.
The Galileo Spacecraft was launched from the cargo by of the space shuttle Atlantis in NASA’s Galileo Jupiter obiter plunged into the Jovian atmosphere on 21 September to be destroyed to prevent contamination of the subsurface water oceans the probe may have discovered on the icy moon Europa.
Launched by the Space Shuttle in October 1989, Galileo reached Jupiter in December 1995, releasing an atmosphere probe and making 35 orbits.
After circling the Jovian System for more than 7 years, Galileo had nearly depleted the propellant needed to point its antennae toward earth and adjust its flight path. While still in controllable the spacecraft was placed on a course to crash into Planet Jupiter, a manoeuvre designed to eliminate the risk of Galileo colliding with the moon Europa and contaminating its pristine surface.

34. The Scientific Method
Begins with a problem or question arising from an observation.
A hypothesis is then formed.
The hypothesis is then tested.
The data is interpreted.
The conclusion supports or disproves the hypothesis.

35. Francis Bacon
Criticized how Aristotle and others reasoned from abstract theories.
Scientists should observe the world first, then draw conclusions.
Empiricism – or the experimental method.

36. René Descartes
Developed analytical geometry, which linked algebra and geometry.
Used mathematics and logic instead of experimentation.
Everything should be doubted until proven by reason.
“I think, therefore I am.”

38. Isaac Newton
Law of universal gravitation – all object in the universe attracts every other object.
Degree of attraction depends on mass.
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.
God is like a clockmaker who set the universe moving.

39. Newton’s Telescope

40. Newton is said to have developed his theory of gravity after watching an apple fall from a tree.

41. Newton’s Death Mask

42. The Scientific Revolution Spreads
Scientific Instruments
Medicine and the Human Body

43. Zacharias Janssen – Microscope

44. Anton van Leeuwenhoeck
Used microscope to see bacteria, red blood cells, immature insects.

45. Evangelista Torricelli
Mercury barometer.
Torricelli, Evangelista ( ), Italian mathematician and physicist, best known for the invention of the barometer. Torricelli was born in Faenza and educated at the Collegio di Sapienza in Rome. From 1641 to 1642 he was Galileo's secretary. On Galileo's death in 1642, Torricelli succeeded him as professor of philosophy and mathematics at the Florentine Academy. Torricelli gave a definition of atmospheric pressure and in invented the barometer. He was the author of a treatise on motion, Trattato del moto (circa ), and Opera geometrica (1644). A unit of measurement, the torr, which is used by physicists working in near-vacuum conditions to indicate atmospheric density and barometric pressure, is named after Torricelli.

46. Gabriel Fahrenheit Mercury thermometer. Water freezes at 32°
Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel ( ), German physicist, born in Danzig (now Gdañsk, Poland). He settled in Holland and engaged in the manufacture of meteorological instruments. In he constructed the first thermometer employing mercury instead of alcohol. Using this thermometer he devised the temperature scale now known by his name and still used in the United States. Fahrenheit also invented a hygrometer of improved design. He discovered that other liquids besides water have a fixed boiling point and that these boiling points vary with changes in atmospheric pressure.

47. Anders Celsius New scale for the mercury thermometer.
Water freezes at 0°.
Celsius, Anders ( ), Swedish astronomer, who first proposed the Celsius thermometer, which has a scale of 100 degrees separating the boiling and freezing points of water. From 1730 to he was professor of astronomy at Uppsala University, built the observatory there in 1740, and was appointed its director. In 1733 his collection of 316 observations of the aurora borealis was published. In 1737 he took part in the French expedition sent to measure one degree of meridian in the polar regions.

48. Andreas Vesalius Dissected human corpses.
Proved Galen was wrong (Swine anatomy is very different from human).
Vesalius, Andreas ( ), Belgian anatomist and physician, whose dissections of the human body and description of his findings helped to correct misconceptions prevailing since ancient times and to lay the foundations of the modern science of anatomy.
Vesalius was born in Brussels. The son of a celebrated apothecary, he attended the University of Leuven and later the University of Paris, where he studied from 1533 to At the University of Paris he studied medicine and showed a special interest in anatomy. Through further study at the University of Padua in 1537, Vesalius obtained his medical degree and an appointment as a lecturer on surgery. During his continuing research, Vesalius showed that the anatomical teachings from antiquity of the Greco-Roman physician Galen, then revered in medical schools, were based on dissections of animals, even though they were intended to provide a guide to the structure of the human body.
Vesalius went on to write an elaborate anatomical work, De Humani Corporis Fabrica (On the Structure of the Human Body, 7 volumes, 1543), which was based on his own dissections of human cadavers. The volumes were richly and carefully illustrated, with many of the fine engravings rendered by Jan van Calcar, a pupil of Titian. The most accurate and comprehensive anatomical textbook to that date, it aroused heated dispute but helped lead to Vesalius's appointment as physician in the imperial household of Charles V, Holy Roman emperor. After Charles abdicated, his son, Philip II, appointed Vesalius one of his physicians in After several years at the imperial court in Madrid, Vesalius made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. On the voyage home in 1564, he died in a shipwreck off the island of Zacynthus.

50. William Harvey
Showed the heart as a pump that circulates blood through the body.
Described the function of blood vessels.
Harvey, William ( ), English physician, who discovered the circulation of the blood and the role of the heart in propelling it, thus refuting the theories of Galen and laying the foundation for modern physiology.
Born on April 1, 1578, at Folkestone, Kent, Harvey received his B.A. from Ganville and Caius College, University of Cambridge, in He then went to Italy, where, at the University of Padua, he studied for five years under the celebrated anatomist Fabricius, who was already doing research on the valves of the veins. Having earned a medical degree (1602), Harvey returned to England and practiced medicine in the London area. He was elected a fellow of the College of Physicians (1607) and appointed physician to Saint Bartholomew's Hospital. Recognized eventually as one of the most distinguished doctors in England, he became physician extraordinary to King James I, whom he attended in his last illness, and physician in ordinary to his son, Charles I.
From 1615 to Harvey served as Lumleian lecturer for the College of Physicians. As early as he discussed in his lectures the function of the heart and how it propelled the blood in a circular course. He arrived at his views not only by an elaborate series of dissections, but also by careful studies of the motion of the heart and blood in a wide range of living animals. These precise observations set a standard for future biological research.
Harvey formally presented his findings in 1628, when his Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus (Anatomical Essay on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals) was published. In this epochal work he explained the experimental method and gave an accurate account of the mechanism of the circulatory system. Because he had no microscope, the only major part of the process he omitted was the role played by the capillaries. He did, however, propose their existence, which was affirmed not long afterward by the Italian anatomist Marcello Malpighi.
Harvey's De Motu Cordis subjected him to severe criticism by some contemporaries, but this was more than compensated for by the later widespread recognition of his contribution. He also undertook research in embryology, set forth in Exercitationes de Generatione Animalium (Essays on the Generation of Animals). The College of Physicians elected Harvey president in 1654, an honor he declined because of failing health. He died in London on June 3, 1657.

51. Edward Jenner Smallpox vaccine
Jenner, Edward ( ), British physician, who discovered the vaccine that is used against smallpox and laid the groundwork for the science of immunology.
Born on May 17, 1749, in Berkeley, a rural vicarage in Gloucestershire, England, Jenner became a keen observer of nature at an early age. After nine years as a surgeon's apprentice, he went to London to study anatomy and surgery under the prominent surgeon John Hunter, then returned to Berkeley to start a country practice that lasted the rest of his life.
Smallpox, a major cause of death in the 18th century, was treated in Jenner's time by the often- fatal procedure of inoculating healthy persons with pustule substances from those who had mild cases of the disease. Jenner observed, among his patients, that those who had been exposed to the much milder disease cowpox were completely resistant to these inoculations. In 1796 he inoculated an eight-year-old boy with cowpox virus; six weeks after the boy's reaction Jenner reinoculated him with smallpox virus, finding the result negative. By 1798, having added similarly successful cases, Jenner wrote An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae, a Disease Known by the Name of Cow Pox, a tract in which he also introduced the term virus.
Jenner encountered some public resistance and professional chicanery in publicizing his findings, and he experienced difficulties in obtaining and preserving cowpox vaccine. Nevertheless his procedure was soon accepted, and mortality due to smallpox plunged. The procedure quickly spread through Europe and to North America. Three- quarters of a century later, the French chemist Louis Pasteur, drawing on Jenner's work, set the course for the science of immunology and the discovery of modern preventive vaccines. Jenner died in Berkeley on January 26, 1823.

53. Robert Boyle Founder of modern chemistry.
Matter is made up of smaller primary particles.
Boyle’ Law - explains how volume, temperature, and gas pressure affect each other.
Boyle, Robert ( ), English natural philosopher and one of the founders of modern chemistry. Boyle is best remembered for Boyle's law, a physical law that explains how the pressure and volume of a gas are related. He was instrumental in the founding of the Royal Society, a British organization dedicated to the advancement of the sciences. Boyle was also a pioneer in the use of experiments and the scientific method to test his theories.

54. Joseph Priestley Separated oxygen from air.
Priestley, Joseph ( ), British chemist, who isolated and described several gases, including oxygen, and who is considered one of the founders of modern chemistry because of his contributions to experimentation.
Priestley was born on March 13, 1733, in Fieldhead, Yorkshire, the son of a Calvinist minister. Priestley trained as a minister of the Dissenting church, which comprised various churches that had separated from the Church of England. He was educated at Daventry Academy, where he became interested in physical science. His first ministry was at Needham Market, Suffolk, in 1755, and he was minister at Nantwich from to Later he became a tutor at Warrington Academy in Lancashire, where he was noted for his development of practical courses for students planning to enter industry and commerce. He also wrote a text, Rudiments of English Grammar (1761), which differed from older, classical approaches. He was ordained in
Priestley was encouraged to conduct experiments in the new science of electricity by the American statesman and scientist Benjamin Franklin, whom he met in London in Priestley wrote The History of Electricity the following year. He also discovered that charcoal can conduct electricity. In Priestley became minister at Leeds, where he grew interested in research on gases. His innovative experimental work resulted in his election to the French Academy of Sciences in 1772, the same year in which he was employed by William Petty Fitzmaurice, 2nd Earl of Shelburne, as librarian and literary companion.
During Priestley's experiments in 1774, he discovered oxygen and described its role in combustion and in respiration. An advocate of the phlogiston theory, however, Priestley called the new gas dephlogisticated air and did not completely understand the future importance of his discovery. The Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele may have discovered oxygen before Priestley, but did not make his work known in time to be credited with its discovery. Priestley also isolated and described the properties of several other gases, including ammonia, nitrous oxide, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide. During his career, Priestley remained opposed to the revolutionary theories of the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier, who gave oxygen its name and correctly described its role in combustion.
In 1780 Priestley left his position with Petty because of religious differences. He became a minister in Birmingham. By this time he had turned to Unitarian thinking, and was considered a religious radical. His book, History of the Corruptions of Christianity (1782), was officially burned in Because of his open support of the French Revolution, his house and effects were burned by a mob in He went to live in London, and in 1794 he emigrated to the United States, where he pursued his writing for the remainder of his life. Priestley died in Northumberland, Pennsylvania, on February 6, His posthumously collected Theological and Miscellaneous Works (25 volumes, ) and Memoirs and Correspondence (2 volumes, ) cover a wide variety of subjects in science, politics, and religion.

55. Antoine Lavoisier Identified and named oxygen.
Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent ( ), French chemist, who is considered the founder of modern chemistry.
Lavoisier was born on August 26, 1743, in Paris and was educated at the Collège Mazarin. He was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in He held many public offices, including those of director of the state gunpowder works in 1776, member of a commission to establish a uniform system of weights and measures in 1790, and commissary of the treasury in He attempted to introduce reforms in the French monetary and taxation system and in farming methods. As one of the farmers-general, he was arrested and tried by the revolutionary tribunal, and guillotined on May 8, 1794 (see French Revolution).
Lavoisier's experiments were among the first truly quantitative chemical experiments ever performed. He showed that, although matter changes its state in a chemical reaction, the quantity of matter is the same at the end as at the beginning of every chemical reaction. These experiments provided evidence for the law of the conservation of matter. Lavoisier also investigated the composition of water, and he named the components of water oxygen and hydrogen.

56. Lavoisier and his wife.