1. The Origins of Mind Chapter 7: Evolution of Control- Related Mental Models

2. Introduction Describes the cognitive and brain systems that support explicit, controlled problem solving. Discusses how the evolution of brain size and organization relates to the systems that support controlled problem solving. Finally, reviews the research on social selection pressures and motivation to control.

3. Cognitive Systems Implicit Processes Explicit Processes Making the Implicit Explicit Central Executive Slave Systems Self-Awareness

4. Implicit Processes Implicit refers to the neural, sensory, perceptual, and cognitive systems that automatically capture and process patterns of social or ecological information but operate below the individual’s awareness. Memory Systems The most frequently encountered and affectively salient ecological information is automatically encoded and stored in long-term memory Modular Information Processing System s Attention to and processing of the forms of information needed to support social discourse and relationships

5. Explicit Processes Explicit processes are conscious, controlled understanding of logical, decontextualized, and abstract representations. Controlled problem solving and the ability to engage in rational analysis are correlated with general intelligence. Inhibition of heuristic-based responding Formation of a conscious, explicit representation

6. Making the Implicit Explicit How does one become explicitly aware of implicitly processed information patterns? The mechanisms by which the central executive creates consciousness results in an attention- driven amplification of the activated information and a synchronization of the brain regions that compose the external executive and the brain regions that are processing the external information.

7. Central Executive Allows individuals to focus on goal-relevant tasks and information and to inhibit irrelevant information from entering conscious awareness. Working Memory The combination of the brain regions that control attention-driven amplification and the amplified perceptual and cognitive processes compose working memory. Individual differences in working memory are related to differences in the ability to focus attention on the task at hand.

8. Slave Systems Baddeley and Hitch (1974) Phonological loop Composed of a phonetic buffer that holds acoustic information in short-term memory and an articulatory rehearsal mechanism. Visuospatial sketch pad Engaged when generating mental images and memories of objects, places, and people. Baddeley (2000, 2002) Episodic buffer results in the conscious awareness of experiences that require an integration of information across space and sometime across time.

9. Self-Awareness Semantic memory refers to the retrieval of decontextualized facts and information. Noetic awareness Episodic memory refers to the retrieval of time- based, contextualized memories of one’s life history. Autonoetic awareness is the ability to consciously consider the self across time, that is, to recall personal experiences, relate these experiences to current situations, and project oneself into the future. Autonoetic mental model (discussed later)

10. Brain Systems Executive Control Areas of the dorsolateral region of the prefrontal cortex Involved in maintaining the task goal in the mind, guiding the sequencing of the multiple problem- solving steps, and suppressing the potential interfering effects of externally or internally generated distractions Anterior cingulate cortex Activated when goal achievement requires dealing with a novelty or conflict (e.g. choosing between two alternatives)

11. Brain Systems Brodmann’s map of the brain

12. Brain Systems Episodic Memory and Autonoetic Awareness The right prefrontal cortex is involved in the retrieval of episodic memories and self-awareness. Craik and colleagues (1999) PET scans were used to examine brain regions that were activated during the study. It was concluded that processing and retrieval of information that involved memories of personal experiences and the person’s self-concept are dependent on the functioning of the right prefrontal cortex.

13. Brain Systems Episodic Memory and Autonoetic Awareness continued… Brain injuries Injuries to the right prefrontal cortex causes there to be an inability to recall episodes of one’s life, such as in the case of patient KC. KC was also unable to project himself into the future through mental time travel. Other people were also unable to problem solve when it came to novel situations or situations involving conflict.

14. Problem Solving and Human Evolution Selection Pressures Brain Evolution Mental Models and the Motivation to Control

15. Selection Pressure Selection Characteristics Time scale of change Must be within the limits of a single lifetime, and should occur repeatedly Type of selection pressure Needs to drive the evolution of self-awareness Coevolutionary arms race Favor brain and cognitive evolution Forms of selection pressures Should be different when comparing humans to apes and other primates Climatic, Ecological, and Social conditions

16. Selection Pressures Climatic Conditions Not considered responsible for the increase in brain volume and EQ or the apparent changes in brain organization during human evolution. Tend to take longer than the time scale used for working memory. Climatic variation does not fit the conditions normally associated with an arms race. Other hominid and primate species were affected by the same climate conditions as our ancestors.

17. Selection Pressures Ecological Conditions Refers to the ability to extract resources from the environment and, at the same time, avoid being extracted by other species Tool Development and Use Hunting techniques have expanded through the development of various tools. Humans use the executive control when developing tools because they are project themselves into the situations in which they would need to use the tools in the future. Other animals tend to hunt through opportunity rather than with the use of mental time travel.

18. Selection Pressures Ecological Conditions Contributed to the evolution of the brain and cognitive processes in humans and it does explain all features of executive control, especially self-awareness. Consistent with the time scale used for working memory and an coevolutionary arms race

19. Selection Pressures Social Conditions The achievement of ecological dominance shifts selection pressures to social competition. Consistent with the time scale of working memory. Group-level competition and dynamics often require sustained attention and other features of executive control.

20. Selection Pressures Social Conditions Self-awareness is the ability to understand those features of the self that others might cue in on and use in their social interactions and strategies. Not only is social competition consistent with a coevolutionary arms race, but it should also accelerate the race. Sharp population crashes Consistent with changes in brain volume and EQ and potential changes in brain organization

21. Brain Evolution Expansion of the Prefrontal Cortex The absolute size of the human prefrontal cortex has expanded over the course of our evolution, which has resulted in an increase in the interconnections among these regions and other regions of the brain. The human prefrontal cortex has been shown to be comparatively larger than in chimpanzees and other primates. This suggests that humans may have an enhanced ability to integrate information across modalities in comparison to apes and primates.

22. Brain Evolution Reorganization of the Prefrontal Cortex and Anterior Cingulate Cortex It is almost certain that the human prefrontal cortex (left and right dorsolateral areas) and the anterior cingulate cortex have undergone substantive reorganizations during human evolution. The result would be accompanying improvement in the ability to inhibit evolved heuristic-based responses and instead internally represent and mentally manipulate ecological and social information explicitly and consciously in working memory. Neuron only found in the anterior cingulate cortex of great apes and humans Right versus left frontal cortex

23. Mental Models and the Motivation to Control Conscious-Psychological Evolution Autonoetic mental model – the individual creates a self-centered mental simulation of the “perfect world,” which is one the individual is able to organize and control social, biological, and physical resources in ways that would enhanced the survival or reproduction options of the individual and kin during human evolution. These models are needed for situations that cannot be resolved with heuristic-based responses. These models enable individuals to anticipate and mentally simulate potential behavioral strategies to deal with variations in social dynamics and ecological conditions.

24. Mental Models and the Motivation to Control Conscious-Psychological Evolution **These models are experienced as daydreams and fantasies.

25. Mental Models and the Motivation to Control Foci of Conscious-Psychological Control The focus of behavioral strategies is gaining access to and control of social, biological, and physical resources that covary with survival and reproductive outcomes during evolution. For humans, these resources can be abstract (e.g. money). The foci of conscious-psychological simulations should be restricted to conditions that also tend to be variant within lifetimes. Support hunting, tool use, and social dynamics

26. Social Cognition and Folk Psychology Control-Related Conscious-Psychological Mechanisms Are there conscious-psychological mechanisms consistent with an evolved motivation to control? Self-efficacy beliefs involve a conscious assessment of one’s competencies in regard to the desired outcome and the perceived competencies of other who are attempting to achieve the same outcome. There are conscious-psychological and implicit mechanisms that maintain self-efficacy and goal directed behavior in the face of inevitable failures. Attribution to external cues (Example: “I failed that test because the teacher made it too difficult.”) Predictable failure (Example: “I knew I was going to fail that test.”)

27. Control-Related Conscious- Psychological Mechanisms Control-related conscious-psychological mechanisms can be integrated with other mechanisms. The focus of one’s attempts to achieve control of personally important outcomes varies with physical, social, and cognitive competencies Example: Decline in physical competencies associated with terminal illness Control-related attributions might be integrated with models of explicit, controlled problem solving and with activity of the anterior cingulate cortex and other brain regions. Occur because of discrepancy between one’s desired outcome and the actual outcome.

28. Social Cognition Social cognition should be focused on the self, relationships, and inferences about the behavior and internal states of other people, and group-level process.

29. Self The self schema is a long-term memory network of information that links together knowledge about the self, including positive and negative traits, episodic memories, and self-efficacy in various domains. Most of the time this knowledge is implicit. Self schemas appear to regulate goal-related behavior.

30. Self When evaluating the competencies of others, people focus on the attributes that are central features of their self schema and prefer relationships with others who seem consistent with self schema. Example: Athletes versus Academics Ideal self Difference between actual self and ideal self Attention is driven to the space between selves and consciously show that abilities or social strategies must be modified.

31. Others The person schema is a long-term memory network that includes representations of the other person’s physical attributes, memories of specific behavioral episodes, and more abstract trait information. Theory of mind would include memories and trait information about how the person typically makes inferences and responds to social cues and their social and other goals. Usually implicit except when the person’s behavior is inconsistent with the schema.

32. Others The person schema is also related to the use of mental simulation—called the simulation heuristic— to make judgments about how the person might react in various situations. Enables better prediction of other people’s behavior.

33. Groups Social selection pressures assist in the formation of groups that work for control of survival-related or reproduction-related resources. Leads to in-group—out- group psychology and group identification

34. Groups When resources are threatened, humans tend to form groups and show favorable bias towards in- groups and negative bias towards out-groups. Usually happens for males in order to protect or obtain the needed resources. Sometimes these biases are explicit. Other times, these biases are implicit and unconscious. The amygdala is often activated when encountering the faces of unfamiliar out-group members, which suggests that they automatically and unconsciously trigger negative feelings in many people.