1. Chapter 5
The Self

2. Self-Concept
The Nature of the self-concept.
Self-concept – “is an organized collection of beliefs about the self”.
These beliefs are also called “self-schemas” and include personality traits, abilities, physical features, values, goals, & social roles (see Figure 5.1).
Possible selves – refer to “one’s conceptions about the kind of person one might become in the future”.

3. Figure 5. 1. The self-concept and self-schemas
Figure The self-concept and self-schemas. The self-concept is composed of various self-schemas, or beliefs about the self. Jason and Chris have different self-concepts, in part, because they have different self-schemas.
Figure 5.1

4. Self-Discrepancies
Individuals have the following self-perceptions:
An “actual self” (qualities people think they actually possess).
An “ideal self” (qualities people would like to have).
An “ought self” (qualities people think they should possess).

5. Self-Discrepancies (cont.)
Self-discrepancy – is a mismatch in how people view themselves and how they really are.
Effects of self-discrepancies (see Figure 5.2):
When the “actual self” equals the “ideal self”, we experience high self-esteem.
When the “actual self” falls short of the “ideal self”, we feel dejected and sad.
When the “actual self” falls short of the “ought self”, we feel irritable and guilty.

6. Figure Types of self-discrepancies, their effects on emotional states, and possible consequences. According to E. Tory Higgins (1989), discrepancies between actual and ideal selves produce disappointment and sadness, whereas discrepancies between actual and ought selves result in irritability and guilt. Such self-discrepancies can make individuals vulnerable to more serious psychological problems, such as depression and anxiety-related disorders.
Figure 5.2

7. Self-Discrepancies (cont.)
People cope with self-discrepancies by:
Changing their behavior to bring it more in line with the ideal, or ought, self.
Blunting self-awareness by:
Avoiding situations that increase self-awareness, or
By using alcohol (See Figure 5.3).

8. Factors Shaping the Self-Concept
Festinger’s (1954) “social comparison theory” states that we compare ourselves with others in order to assess and/or improve our abilities.
A reference group is “a set of people against whom individuals compare themselves”.
If we want to improve, we choose reference groups of superior quality, but
If we want to bolster self-esteem, we choose inferior groups.

9. Factors Shaping the Self-Concept (cont.)
Generally, our self-perceptions are distorted in a positive direction.
Feedback from others is important in balancing our own observations.
Early in life, parents and family members are the primary influences.
As children age, peers become progressively more important.
Later in life, close friends and marriage partners play dominant roles.

10. Factors Shaping the Self-Concept (cont.)
Cultural values and self-concept.
In cultures that value individualism – “putting personal goals ahead of group goals”, identity is defined more in terms of personal attributes.
In cultures that value collectivism – “putting group goals ahead of personal goals”, identity is define more in terms of the groups one belongs to.

11. Factors Shaping the Self-Concept (cont.)
Cultural values and self-concept. (cont.)
People raised in individualistic cultures:
Have an independent view of the self.
View themselves as unique, self-contained, and distinct from others.
People raised in collectivist cultures:
Have an interdependent view of the self.
View themselves as more connected to others.

12. Self-Esteem
Self-esteem – “refers to one’s overall assessment of one’s worth as a person”.
It is a global evaluation of many aspects of the self (see Figure 5.6).
After childhood, self-esteem appears to be very stable.

13. Figure 5. 6. The structure of self-esteem
Figure The structure of self-esteem. Self-esteem is a global evaluation that combines assessments of various aspects of one’s self-concept, each of which is built up from many specific behaviors and experiences. (Adapted from Shavelson, Hubner, & Stanton, 1976).
Figure 5.6

14. Self-Esteem (cont.)
Self-esteem and adjustment.
Self-esteem is strongly and consistently connected to happiness.
People with high self-esteem feel more likeable and attractive, have better relationships and make better impressions on others.

15. Self-Esteem (cont.)
Self-esteem and adjustment. (cont.)
People with high self-esteem persist longer in the face of failure.
In contrast, people with low self-esteem have negative expectations about performance, feel worse after poor performances, and suffer further decreases in self-esteem.

16. Self-Esteem (cont.)
High self-esteem versus narcissism.
Feeling too good about oneself is not desirable, however.
Narcissism – “the tendency to regard oneself as grandiosely self-important” - is pathological and different from high self-esteem, a healthy trait.

17. Self-Esteem (cont.)
High self-esteem versus narcissism. (cont.)
Narcissistic individuals:
Are preoccupied with fantasies of success.
Believe they deserve special treatment.
React aggressively when their view of themselves (ego) is threatened (see Figure 5.8).

18. Figure 5. 8. The path from narcissism to aggression
Figure The path from narcissism to aggression. Individuals who score high on narcissism perceive negative evaluations by others to be extremely threatening. This experience of ego threat triggers strong hostile feelings and aggressive behavior toward the evaluator in retaliation for the perceived criticism. Low scorers are less likely to perceive negative evaluations as threatening and, therefore, behave much less aggressively toward evaluators.
Figure 5.8

19. The Development of Self-Esteem
Parents play an important role in shaping self-esteem early in life.
Two dimensions of parenting are important:
Parental acceptance.
Parental control.
Together, these dimensions yield four parenting styles (see Figure 5.9).
The authoritative style is associated with the highest self-esteem scores.

20. The Development of Self-Esteem (cont.)
Teachers, classmates and close friends also influence children’s self-esteem.
Children with perceived support from significant others have the highest self-esteem.
Children also use reference groups as a basis for self-judgments.
Those who feel competent, relative to others, have the highest self-esteem.

21. Ethnicity, Gender and Self-Esteem
Ethnicity and gender interact in complex ways with regard to self-esteem.
White males have higher self-esteem than do white females, but minority males have lower self-esteem than do minority females.
Overall, males score slightly higher on self-esteem than do females, and white girls have lower self-esteem than do minority girls.

22. Basic Principles of Self-Perception
Cognitive processes affect the ability to maintain a view of the self.
Two different types of processes are at work:
Automatic processing – default mode in which we handle information without much deliberate decision-making (e.g., going through our morning routine).
Controlled processing – active thinking required for important decision-making and analysis.

23. Basic Principles of Self-Perception (cont.)
Self-attributions – are “inferences that people draw about the causes of their own behavior”.
Three key dimensions of attributions are:
Whether they are internal or external.
Internal attributions – behavior is caused by personal dispositions.
External attributions – behavior is affected by the situation.

24. Basic Principles of Self-Perception (cont.)
Whether they are stable or unstable.
Stable attributions – the cause of behavior is unlikely to change over time.
Unstable attributions – the cause of behavior is variable, or subject to change.
This dimension interacts with the internal-external one and yields four types of attributions about success and failure (see Figure 5.10).

25. Basic Principles of Self-Perception (cont.)
Whether they are controllable or uncontrollable.
This dimension simply considers whether or not the individual has any control over the behavior.

26. Basic Principles of Self-Perception (cont.)
Explanatory style – “refers to the tendency to use similar causal attributions for a wide variety of events in one’s life”.
People who use an “optimistic explanatory style” attribute setbacks to external, unstable and specific factors, whereas
People who use a “pessimistic explanatory style” attribute setbacks to internal, stable and global factors (see Figure 5.11).

27. Figure The effects of attributional style on expectations, emotions, and behavior. The pessimistic explanatory style is seen in the top set of boxes. This attributional style, which attributes setbacks to internal, stable and global causes, tends to result in an expectation of lack of control over future events, depressed feelings, and passive behavior. A more adaptive, optimistic attributional style is shown in the bottom set of boxes.
Figure 5.11

28. Basic Principles of Self-Perception (cont.)
Four motives guide self-understanding.
Self-assessment – desire for truthful information about oneself.
Self-verification – preference for feedback that matches our self-view.
Self-improvement – looking to successful others in order to improve ourselves.
Self-enhancement – desire to maintain positive feelings about oneself.

29. Basic Principles of Self-Perception (cont.)
Methods of self-enhancement.
Downward social comparison – a “defensive tendency to compare oneself with someone whose troubles are more serious than one’s own”.
Self-serving bias – “tendency to attribute one’s successes to personal factors and one’s failures to situational factors”.

30. Basic Principles of Self-Perception (cont.)
Methods of self-enhancement. (cont.)
Basking in reflected glory – “tendency to enhance one’s image by publicly announcing one’s association with those who are successful”.
Self-handicapping – “tendency to sabotage one’s performance to provide an excuse for possible failure”.

31. Self-Regulation
Self-regulation is “the work of directing and controlling one’s behavior”.
According to the “ego depletion model”, people have a limited amount of self-control.
For example, if you successfully resist temptation to indulge yourself with sweets today, it is more difficult to do so tomorrow.

32. Self-Regulation (cont.)
Self-efficacy - “people’s conviction that they can achieve specific goals” - is very important to healthy adjustment.
Fortunately, self-efficacy can be learned and changed.
This is important to adjustment because increasing self-efficacy is beneficial to one’s physical and mental health.

33. Self-Regulation (cont.)
Self-efficacy usually comes from four sources.
Mastery experiences.
Learning new skills increases self-efficacy.
It is especially important to persist in the face of mistakes, or failure.
Vicarious experiences – watching others to learn a new skill.

34. Self-Regulation (cont.)
Self-efficacy usually comes from four sources. (cont.)
Persuasion and encouragement.
Interpretation of emotional arousal.
When we try new things, we may become nervous.
It is important to attribute this to normal arousal needed to do well, rather than fear.

35. Self-Regulation (cont.)
Self-defeating behaviors, “seemingly intentional actions that thwart a person’s self--interest”, come in three categories:
Deliberate self-destruction.
Tradeoffs – engaging in short-term, potentially harmful behaviors, in order to pursue healthy long-term goals.
Counterproductive strategies – persisting in ineffective strategies to achieve a goal.

36. Self-Presentation
A public self is - “an image presented to others in social interactions”.
Public selves can vary according to the situation, or role, that people are in. Thus, we have multiple public selves.
However, adjustment is best when there is considerable overlap, or integration, in the various public selves (see Figure 5.14).

37. Figure 5. 14. Public selves and adjustment
Figure Public selves and adjustment. Person 1 has very divergent public selves with relatively little overlap among them. Person 2, whose public selves are more congruent with each other, is likely to be better adjusted than Person 1.
Figure 5.14

38. Self-Presentation (cont.)
Impression management – refers to “usually conscious efforts by people to influence how others think of them” (see Figure 5.15).

39. Figure 5. 15. Strategic self-presentation strategies
Figure Strategic self-presentation strategies. Individuals rely on a variety of self-presentation strategies to present a certain image of themselves to others. To avoid the risks associated with the strategies, it’s important to use the tactics skillfully. (Based on Jones, 1990).
Figure 5.15

40. Self-Presentation (cont.)
Impression management strategies include:
Ingratiation – “behaving in ways to make oneself likable to others”.
Self-promotion – accenting your strong points in order to earn respect.
Exemplification – “demonstrating exemplary behavior in order to boost your integrity or character”.
Intimidation – using physical, or emotional threats to get what you want from others.
Supplication – “acting weak or dependent in order to get favors from others”.

41. Self-Presentation (cont.)
Perspectives on impression management.
Research on impression management has identified the following patterns of behavior:
People try to make positive impressions when interacting with strangers, but shift toward modesty with those who know them well.
At times, attempting to project a positive image can lead to dangerous behavior.
(e.g., risking disease because you are unwilling to buy condoms in public.)

42. Self-Presentation (cont.)
Self-monitoring – “refers to the degree to which people attend to and control the impressions they make on others”.
High self-monitors are more concerned about making favorable impressions and are good at interpreting what others see.
Low self-monitors are more likely to express their true feelings or attitudes.
Adjustment is best in those that score closer to the middle on self-monitoring.

43. Application: Building Self-Esteem
Building self-esteem is important because individuals with low self-esteem are:
More prone to depression.
More demoralized by failure.
More anxious in relationships.

44. Application: Building Self-Esteem (cont.)
Seven guidelines for building self-esteem:
Recognize that you control your self-image.
You can change your self-image to a more positive one.
Learn more about yourself.
People with low self-esteem don’t know as much about themselves as do those with high self-esteem.

45. Application: Building Self-Esteem (cont.)
Seven guidelines for building self-esteem: (cont.)
Don’t let others set your goals.
Recognize unrealistic goals.
Modify negative self-talk.
Remember to use an optimistic explanatory style when confronting successes and failures.
Recognize your strengths.
Approach others with a positive outlook.