1. Biopsychology and the Foundations of Neuroscience
Chapter 3
Biopsychology and the Foundations of Neuroscience
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What is Biopsychology?
Biopsychology – The specialty in psychology that studies the interaction of biology, behavior, and the environment
Neuroscience – Interdisciplinary field that focuses on the brain and its role in psychological processes
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3. How Are Genes and Behavior Linked?
Evolution has fundamentally shaped psychological processes because it favors genetic variations that produce adaptive behavior
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4. How Are Genes and Behavior Linked?
Innate – Inborn; present at birth; part of the organism’s biological heritage
Evolution – The gradual process of biological change that occurs in a species as it adapts to its environment
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5. Evolution and Natural Selection
Natural selection – The driving force behind evolution, by which the environment “selects” the fittest organisms
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6. How Natural Selection Works
Environmental pressure
(changes in the environment)
Competition
(for resources)
Selection of fittest phenotype
(from among a variety of phenotypes)
Reproductive success
(genotype corresponding to fittest
phenotypes passed to next generation)
Frequency of that genotype increases
(in next generation)
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Genes and Inheritance
Genotype – An organism’s genetic makeup
Phenotype – An organism’s observable physical characteristics
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Genes and Inheritance
Mutations – Genetic variations, which occur randomly, especially during the recombination of chromosomes in sexual reproduction
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9. Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA
DNA – A long, complex molecule that encodes genetic characteristics
Genes – The functional units of a chromosome
Composed of nucleotides
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10. Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA
Chromosomes – Tightly coiled threadlike structures along which the genes are organized
Sex chromosomes – The X and Y chromosomes that determine our physical sex characteristics
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11. Genetic Explanations for Psychological Processes
Genes influence our psychological characteristics as well as our physical traits
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12. How Does the Body Communicate Internally?
The body’s two communication systems, the nervous system and the endocrine system, both use chemical messengers to communicate with targets throughout the body
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The Neuron
Types of Neurons
Sensory neurons (carry messages from sense receptors towards the CNS)
Motor neurons (carry messages from CNS toward muscles and glands)
Interneurons (carry messages between nerve cells)
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14. The Structure of a Neuron
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The Neural Impulse
Neural impulse – Brief electric surge that carries the neuron’s message
Ions – Charged particles that are moved across the cell membrane
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The Neural Impulse
Resting potential
Action potential
Synapse
Synaptic transmission
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Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters – Chemical messengers that relay neural messages across the synapse
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18. Seven Important Neurotransmitters
Dopamine
Serotonin
Norepinephrine
Acetylcholine
GABA
Glutamine
Endorphins
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19. Schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease
Neurotransmitters
Normal Function:
Produces sensations of pleasure and reward; used by CNS neurons in voluntary movement
Dopamine
Serotonin
Norepinephrine
Problems with Imbalance:
Schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease
Acetylcholine
GABA
Substances that Affect:
Cocaine, amphetamines, Ritalin, alcohol
Glutamine
Endorphins
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20. Depression, certain anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder
Neurotransmitters
Normal Function:
Regulates sleep and dreaming, mood, pain, aggression, appetite and sexual behavior
Dopamine
Serotonin
Norepinephrine
Problems with Imbalance:
Depression, certain anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder
Acetylcholine
GABA
Glutamine
Substances that Affect:
Prozac, hallucinogenics (e.g. LSD)
Endorphins
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21. High blood pressure, depression
Neurotransmitters
Normal Function:
Controls heart rate, sleep, sexual responsiveness, stress, vigilance and appetite
Dopamine
Serotonin
Norepinephrine
Problems with Imbalance:
High blood pressure, depression
Acetylcholine
GABA
Substances that Affect:
Tricyclic antidepressants, beta blockers
Glutamine
Endorphins
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22. Certain muscular disorders, Alzheimer’s disease
Neurotransmitters
Normal Function:
Primary transmitter used by neurons carrying messages from CNS; involved in some kinds of learning and memory
Dopamine
Serotonin
Norepinephrine
Problems with Imbalance:
Certain muscular disorders, Alzheimer’s disease
Acetylcholine
GABA
Substances that Affect:
Nicotine, botulism toxin, curare, atropine
Glutamine
Endorphins
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23. Most prevalent inhibitory neurotransmitter in neurons of CNS
Neurotransmitters
Normal Function:
Most prevalent inhibitory neurotransmitter in neurons of CNS
Dopamine
Serotonin
Norepinephrine
Problems with Imbalance:
Anxiety, epilepsy
Acetylcholine
GABA
Substances that Affect:
Barbiturates, tranquilizers (e.g. Valium, Librium), alcohol
Glutamine
Endorphins
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24. Brain damage after stroke
Neurotransmitters
Dopamine
Normal Function:
Primary excitatory neurotransmitter in CNS; involved in learning and memory
Serotonin
Norepinephrine
Acetylcholine
Problems with Imbalance:
Brain damage after stroke
GABA
Substances that Affect:
PCP (“angel dust”)
Glutamine
Endorphins
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25. Pleasurable sensations and control of pain
Neurotransmitters
Dopamine
Normal Function:
Pleasurable sensations and control of pain
Serotonin
Norepinephrine
Problems with Imbalance:
Lowered levels resulting from opiate addiction
Acetylcholine
GABA
Substances that Affect:
Opiates: opium, heroin, morphine, methadone
Glutamine
Endorphins
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Plasticity
Plasticity – Ability of the nervous system to adapt or change as the result of experience; sometimes helps the nervous system adapt to physical damage
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Glial Cells
Glial cells
Provide structural support for neurons
Help in forming new synapses
Form myelin sheath
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28. The Organization of the Nervous System
Peripheral nervous system
Central nervous system (CNS)
Autonomic nervous system
Somatic nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system
Parasympathetic nervous system
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The Endocrine System
(the body’s chemical messenger system)
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The Endocrine System
Pituitary gland – Master gland that produces hormones influencing the secretions of all other endocrine glands; produces hormone that influences growth; attached to hypothalamus
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31. How Does the Brain Produce Behavior and Mental Processes?
The brain is composed of many specialized modules that work together to create mind and behavior
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Windows on the Brain
EEG (electroencephalograph) – Device for recording brain waves, typically by electrodes placed on the scalp
Brain waves – Patterns of electrical activity generated by the brain
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Windows on the Brain
Epilepsy – Brain disorder that is often marked by seizures and loss of consciousness; caused by out-of-control electrical activity in the brain
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Windows on the Brain
Lesions – Tissue damage that results from disease or injury
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Windows on the Brain
Brain scans – Recordings of the brain’s electrical or biochemical activity at specific sites
CT scanning (computerized tomography)
PET scanning (positron emission tomography)
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
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36. Three Layers of the Brain
Brain stem and cerebellum
Drive vital functions, such as heart rate, breathing, digestion
Limbic system
Adds emotions, complex motives, increased memory abilities
Cerebrum
Enables reasoning, planning, creating, problem solving
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37. The Brain Stem and Cerebellum
Thalamus
Pons
Cerebellum
Medulla
Brain stem
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The Limbic System
Hypothalamus – Serves as the brain’s blood-testing laboratory, constantly monitors blood to determine the condition of the body
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The Limbic System
Amygdala – Involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression
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The Limbic System
Hippocampus – Involved in establishing long-term memories
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The Cerebrum
Cerebrum – Topmost layer of the brain; the bulbous cap over the limbic system
Cerebral cortex – Thin gray-matter covering of the cerebrum; carries on thinking and perceiving
Cerebral hemispheres – The two walnut shaped halves of the cerebrum, connected by the corpus callosum
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42. The Four Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
Frontal lobes (movement and thinking)
Parietal lobes (touch sensation and spatial relationships)
Occipital lobes (contain visual cortex)
Temporal lobes (process sounds, including speech)
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The Cooperative Brain
Association cortex – Cortical regions that combine information from various other parts of the brain
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Cerebral Dominance
Cerebral dominance – Tendency of each brain hemisphere to exert control over different functions
Aphasia – The loss of speech caused be brain damage
Spatial orientation – Process of locating one’s body or other objects in space
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45. Specialization of the Cerebral Hemispheres
Left Hemisphere
Right Hemisphere
Spontaneous speaking and writing
Repetitive but not spontaneous speaking
Responses to complex commands
Responses to simple commands
Word recognition
Facial recognition
Memory for words and numbers
Memory for shapes and music
Sequences of movements
Spatial interpretation
Emotional responsiveness
Feelings of anxiety
Positive emotion
Negative emotion
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The Split Brain
Split-brain patients – Individuals who have had the corpus callosum surgically severed
Duality of consciousness – Condition in which a split-brain patient has a separate consciousness in each hemisphere
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End of Chapter 3
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