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Chapter 3 The Molecules of Cells
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Unnumbered Figure p.32 Model of a milk-digesting enzyme
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Unnumbered Figure p.33
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Figure 3.1 Variations in carbon skeletons
Structural formula Methane H Ball-and-stick model Space-filling model C The 4 single bonds of carbon point to the corners of a tetrahedron. Ethane Propane Carbon skeletons vary in length. Butane Isobutane Skeletons may be unbranched or branched. 1-Butene 2-Butene Skeletons may have double bonds, which can vary in location. Cyclohexane Benzene Skeletons may be arranged in rings.
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Table 3.2 Functional groups of organic compounds
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Figure 3.2 Differences in the functional groups of male and female sex hormones (carbons and their attached hydrogens omitted) Female lion Estradiol HO OH O Testosterone Male lion
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Figure 3.3A Building a polymer chain
OH Unlinked monomer Dehydration reaction Longer polymer Short polymer H2O
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Figure 3.3B Breaking a polymer chain
H2O OH Hydrolysis
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Figure 3.4A Bees with honey, a mixture of two monosaccharides
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Figure 3.4B Structures of glucose and fructose
H HO O OH Glucose Fructose
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Figure 3.4C Three representations of the ring form of glucose
OH HO CH2OH Structural formula Abbreviated structure Simplified structure 6 5 4 3 2 1
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Figure 3.5 Disaccharide formation
OH HO O CH2OH H2O Glucose Maltose
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Table 3.6 Sweetness scale
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Figure 3.7 Polysaccharides
Starch granules in potato tuber cells Glycogen granules in muscle tissue Cellulose fibrils in a plant cell wall Glucose monomer Cellulose molecules STARCH GLYCOGEN CELLULOSE O OH
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Figure 3.8A Water beading on the naturally oily coating of feathers
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Figure 3.8B A dehydration reaction linking a fatty acid to glycerol
CH2 CH3 H2O H OH HO C O Fatty acid Glycerol
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Figure 3.8C A fat molecule H CH2 O CH3 CH C
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Figure 3.9 Cholesterol, a steroid
H3C
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Unnumbered Figure Page 41
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Figure 3.11 Structural and contractile proteins
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3.11 Enzymes
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Figure 3.12A General structure of an amino acid
H N C R O OH Amino group Carboxyl (acid)
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Figure 3.12B Examples of amino acids
H N C CH2 CH CH3 O OH Leucine (Leu) Serine (Ser) Aspartic acid (Asp) Hydrophobic Hydrophilic
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Figure 3.12C Peptide bond formation
H N C O OH + R H2O Peptide bond Dipeptide Amino acid Dehydration reaction Amino group Carboxyl
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Figure 3.13A Ribbon model of the protein lysozyme
Groove
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Figure 3.13B Space-filling model of lysozyme
Groove
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Unnumbered Figure page 44
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Unnumbered Figure page 44
Polypeptide chain Collagen
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Figure 3.14 Protein Structure
Levels of Protein Structure Leu Met Asn Pro Val Val Ile Ala Primary structure Cys Glu Lys Val Arg Gly Ala His Phe Thr Ser Lys Val Gly Val Leu Asp Ala Val Arg Gly Ser Pro Amino acids Hydrogen bond O H H C C N C C N O C C C H C N H H R N C C C N O O O C C N C H O N H O C N H H H C N H N H C N O C O H C C N C C N O C O C C H C R O H O H C Secondary structure C C O C N H C C N C C N O O N H O C N H C H O O C N H H C O C N C N C N H H C C N C H O O C O C N C H C H O C C N C N H O C Alpha helix Pleated sheet Tertiary structure Polypeptide (single subunit of transthyretin) Transthyretin, with four identical Polypeptide subunits Quaternary structure
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Figure 3.15 Linus Pauling with a model of the alpha helix in 1948
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Figure 3.16A A nucleotide Sugar OH O P O CH2 H N Phosphate group
Nitrogenous base (A)
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Figure 3.16B Part of a polynucleotide
Sugar-phosphate backbone T G C A Nucleotide
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Figure 3.16C DNA double helix
T A G Base pair T
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Unnumbered Figure page 48
… OH + H Short polymer Monomer H2O Dehydration Hydrolysis Longer polymer
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Unnumbered Figure page 48
C
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Unnumbered Figure page 48
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Unnumbered Figure page 49
CH2OH O H HO OH HOCH2 Sucrose
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Unnumbered Figure page 49
H C N O OH CH2
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Unnumbered Figure page 49
Rate of reaction Temperature (C) 20 40 60 80 100 Enzyme A Enzyme B
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