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Learning and Remembering

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Presentation on theme: "Learning and Remembering"— Presentation transcript:

1 Learning and Remembering
Cognitive Psychology Chapter 6 Learning and Remembering

2 Learning and Remembering
4/22/2017 Learning and Remembering Overview of Long Term Memory Mnemonics and Mnemonists Ebbinghaus Tradition Storing to Episodic Memory Encoding specificity Retrieval from Episodic Memory Decay and interference Implicit /Explicit memory Study Question. • Why would it likely be better for a student to write their exams in the same classroom in which they attend lecture? Relate Tulving’s encoding specificity principle to this phenomenon. • Describe the levels (depth) of processing approach to memory. What are incidental learning task and how have they been used to support the depth of processing position.

3 Learning and Remembering
Endel Tulving An overview of long term memory Memory Declarative (Explicit) Nondeclarative (Implicit) Skills/ Habits Priming Classical Conditioning Nonassociative Learning Facts (Semantic) Events (Episodic) This is the outline.

4 Learning and Remembering
Endel Tulving An overview of long term memory Tulving’s episodic and semantic distinction Episodic memory: Memory for events. Semantic memory: Memory for facts. The implicit / explicit distinction Implicit memory: Memory without awareness tested using indirect measures. E.g., Fragment completion: D A N __ __ __ Explicit memory: Memory with awareness. Tested using direct measures. E.g., Recognition: D A N G E R This is the outline.

5 Learning and Remembering
Endel Tulving An overview of long term memory The procedural / declarative distinction Procedural memory: Memory for doing things. Declarative memory: Explicit memory. E.g., Milner’s Experiment with H.M. This is the outline.

6 Learning and Remembering
An overview of long term memory <Selection of clips from “Memento”> This is the outline.

7 Learning and Remembering
An overview of long term memory This is the outline.

8 Learning and Remembering
An overview of long term memory Mnemonics Video clip: Memory Wizards available at This is the outline.

9 Learning and Remembering
An overview of long term memory Mnemonics How good is your memory? This is the outline.

10 Learning and Remembering
An overview of long term memory Mnemonics Mnemonics: Strategies and tricks for improving memory. Mnemonists: Individuals who demonstrate extraordinary memory ability. Imagery and Memory Advantage of Pictures over Words Advantage of concrete over abstract nouns Many mnemonics exploit imagery The method of loci The pegword method Luria’s Mnemonist (SV). Synaesthesia This is the outline.

11 Learning and Remembering
An overview of long term memory Three mnemonic principles Structure for learning Encoding (rehearsal) Use of images/rhymes/acronyms Deep, durable memories Storage or retention (depth of processing) Retrieval Cues Retrieval (encoding specificity) This is the outline.

12 Learning and Remembering
Hermann von Ebbinghause Learning and Remembering An overview of long term memory The Ebbinghaus tradition Uber das Gedachtnis (1885) Method Used nonsense syllables (GAH, SIF, etc.) The relearning task Savings score: the reduction in the number of trials necessary for relearning as compared with original learning. MacLeod (1988) Relearning savings are a result of improved recall. This is the outline.

13 Learning and Remembering
Hermann von Ebbinghause Learning and Remembering An overview of long term memory The Ebbinghaus tradition The forgetting curve Savings (%) This is the outline.

14 Learning and Remembering
Hermann von Ebbinghause Learning and Remembering An overview of long term memory The Ebbinghaus tradition Evaluation Problems with the (exclusive) use of nonsense syllables AUP, DWN, LEF, RGT, BAK, FOW Real life memory The current position Meaning is central to the study of LTM Participants in studies use mnemonics Ecological validity is important This is the outline.

15 Learning and Remembering
Storing information in LTM Frequency We are very sensitive to the frequency of events Distinctiveness The von Restorff effect: improved memory for information that is made distinct from surrounding information. Rehearsal, organization, and imagery

16 Learning and Remembering
Storing information in LTM Rehearsal Atkinson & Shiffrin’s definition A deliberate practicing (recycling) of the contents of STM. Two effects Maintains information in STM Increases the likelihood that the item will be transferred to LTM Hellyer (1962) Had participants rehearse out loud and perform a Brown-Peteson task (arithmetic).

17 Learning and Remembering
Storing information in LTM Results

18 Learning and Remembering
Storing information in LTM Rehearsal and serial position effects Rundas (1971) Participants rehearsed out loud.

19 Learning and Remembering
Storing information in LTM Rehearsal and serial position effects Craik & Watkins (1973) Participants learned 12 lists of twelve words Instructed that the last four were the most important Accuracy

20 Learning and Remembering
Storing information in LTM Levels of Processing Two postulates of the levels of processing approach Physical properties --> shallow processing Semantic properties --> deep processing The deeper the processing, the more durable the memory. Two forms of rehearsal Maintenance rehearsal: Rote repetition of information. Elaborative rehearsal: The processing of information on a meaningful level.

21 Learning and Remembering
Storing information in LTM Empirical support for levels of processing Hyde & Jenkins (1973) Intentional vs Incidental learning Three incidental learning conditions Pleasantness (semantic/deep) Letter ‘E’ present? (Physical/shallow) Number of letters (Physical/shallow)

22 Learning and Remembering
Storing information in LTM Empirical support for levels of processing Hyde & Jenkins (1973)

23 Learning and Remembering
Storing information in LTM Empirical support for levels of processing The self-reference effect

24 Learning and Remembering
     Alan Baddeley Storing information in LTM “The Trouble With Levels” Defining levels Circularity of argument We know that shallow processing leads to poor memory because.. Processing letters leads to poor memory and… We know processing letters is shallow… Because shallow processing leads to poor memory and … Task differences Recall vs. recognition Glenberg et al. (1977) • Used Brown-Peterson task with repeated words for phonological suppression • Recognition showed effect of amount of rehearsal, not recall

25 4/22/2017

26 Learning and Remembering
Storing information in LTM Organization List as many “things that you can eat” as you can. Are your answers organized? Category clustering Organization in semantic memory (next week) Tulving’s subjective organization Organization generated by the rememberer for structuring a list where no organization is supplied by the experimenter Imagery Paivio’s dual coding hypothesis Memory can be coded visually and verbally Words that can imaged can be stored twice

27 Learning and Remembering
Retrieving information from LTM Decay Thorndyke’s law of disuse (use it or lose it) Bartlett and the reconstructive nature of memory We remember only the gist, not details. Interference in memory recall Proactive Interference : Previously learned material interferes with the learning of new material Retroactive Interference : New material interferes with previously learned material.

28 Learning and Remembering
Retrieving information from LTM Accessibility vs. availability

29 Learning and Remembering
Retrieving information from LTM Accessibility vs. availability Tip-of-the-tongue (Brown & MacNeil) 49 low-frequency words (e.g., apse, nepotism, sampan), prompted by brief definitions. 8.5% of trials -> TOT Total of 360 TOT states: 224 similar-sound TOTs (e.g., Saipan for sampan) 48% had the same number of syllables as the target 95 similar-meaning TOTs (e.g., houseboat for sampan). > 50% can guess the first letter

30 Learning and Remembering
Endel Tulving Retrieving information from LTM Encoding specificity When is recall better than recognition? Tulving’s recognition failure experiment Step 1: Study list head LIGHT bath NEED pretty BLUE etc. Step 2: Free association and recognition

31 Learning and Remembering
Endel Tulving Retrieving information from LTM Encoding specificity When is recall better than recognition? dark _______ ________ ________ ______ want _______ ________ ________ ______ sky _______ ________ ________ ______ Etc.

32 Learning and Remembering
Endel Tulving Retrieving information from LTM Encoding specificity When is recall better than recognition? When recall is cued. What makes a good cue? Encoding Specificity Hypothesis. A cue will be an effective aid to retrieval if it is stored as part of the original memory. An empirical example (Goddan & Baddeley, 1975). Participants are assigned to one of four conditions and were presented with a list of words. Encoding: Underwater or on land Retrieval: Underwater or on land

33 Learning and Remembering
Endel Tulving Retrieving information from LTM Encoding specificity Context-dependent memory. The context/ environment is stored as part of memories

34 Learning and Remembering
Amnesia and implicit memory Amnesia - loss of memory or memory ability due to brain injury or disease. Retrograde amnesia - loss of memory for events occurring before injury Anterograde amnesia - inability to form new memory for events occurring after injury

35 Learning and Remembering
Amnesia and implicit memory Anterograde amnesia Video clip: The man with a 30 sec memory

36 Learning and Remembering
Amnesia and implicit memory Anterograde amnesia H.M. Tools and objects, revisited Role of the hippocampus Dissociation of declarative and procedural memory Korsakoff’s syndrome

37 Learning and Remembering
Amnesia and implicit memory Warrington & Weiskrantz (1970) Amnesic patients and institutionalized controls study a list of words. Three memory tests Free Recall Yes/No recognition Word stem completion: tab____? gar____?

38 Learning and Remembering
Amnesia and implicit memory Warrington & Weiskrantz (1970)

39 Learning and Remembering
Amnesia and implicit memory Repitition priming - a previous encounter with information facilitated later performance on the same information. Does not require conscious recognition Is independent of level of processing Jacoby & Dallas (1981) Three orienting tasks Physical (e.g., contains an ‘L’ ?) Rhyme (e. g., rhymes with train?) Semantic (e. g., is it the center of the nervous system?) Two memory tests Yes/No recognition (Masked) perceptual identification

40 Learning and Remembering
Amnesia and implicit memory Repitition priming - a previous encounter with information facilitated later performance on the same information. Jacoby & Dallas (1981)

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