1. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 7 Cognition This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images Any rental, lease or lending of the program. ISBN: 0-131-73180-7

2. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Human memory is an information processing system that works constructively to encode, store, and retrieve information What is Memory?

3. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What is Memory? Memory – Any system – human, animal, or machine – that encodes, stores, and retrieves information

4. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 -Metaphors for Memory Cognitive psychologists see human memory more as an interpretive system, such as an artist, rather than a system that takes an accurate recording, such as a video recorder

5. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 -Human Memory is Good at: Information on which attention is focused Information in which we are interested Information that arouses us emotionally Information that fits with our previous experiences Information that we rehearse

6. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 EncodingStorageRetrieval Memory’s Three Basic Tasks

7. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 EncodingStorageRetrieval Involves modification of information to fit the preferred format of the memory system Elaboration – Deliberate encoding in which you connect a new concept with existing information Memory’s Three Basic Functions

8. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 EncodingStorageRetrieval Involves retention of encoded material over time Memory’s Three Basic Functions

9. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 EncodingStorageRetrieval Involves the location and recovery of information from memory Memory’s Three Basic Functions

10. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Each of the three memory stages encodes and stores memories in a different way, but they work together to transform sensory experience into a lasting record that has a pattern of meaning How Do We Form Memories?

11. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory

12. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Preserves brief sensory impressions of stimuli

13. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The First Stage: Sensory Memory On the next slide, you will see a series of letters for one second Try to remember as many letters as you can

14. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 D J B X H G C L Y

15. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The First Stage: Sensory Memory How many can you recall?

16. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 D J B X H G C L Y

17. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The First Stage: Sensory Memory The actual capacity of sensory memory can be twelve or more items All but three or four items disappear before they can enter consciousness There is a separate sensory register for each sense

18. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The First Stage: Sensory Memory Psychologists believe that, in this stage, memory images take the form of nerve impulses

19. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal, also called short-term memory or STM

20. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Second Stage: Working Memory Working memory consists of A central executive A phonological loop The sketchpad

21. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Encoding and Storage in Working Memory Chunking – Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units Maintenance rehearsal – Process in which information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory

22. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Acoustic encoding – Conversion of information to sound patterns in working memory Encoding and Storage in Working Memory Elaborative rehearsal – Process in which information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM

23. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Encoding and Storage in Working Memory Levels-of-processing theory – Explanation for the fact that information that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful terms in LTM will be better remembered

24. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Stores material organized according to meaning, also called LTM

25. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Third Stage: Long-Term Memory Procedural memory – Division of LTM that stores memories for how things are done Declarative memory – Division of LTM that stores explicit information (also known as fact memory)

26. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Semantic memory – Subdivision of declarative memory that stores general knowledge, including meanings of words and concepts The Third Stage: Long-Term Memory Episodic memory – Subdivision of declarative memory that stores memories for personal events, or “episodes”

27. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Semantic memory Includes memory for: language, facts general knowledge Episodic memory Includes memory for: events, personal experiences Includes memory for: motor skills, operant and classical conditioning Long-term memory Declarative memoryProcedural memory

28. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Biological Basis of Long-Term Memory Engram – The physical trace of memory Anterograde amnesia – Inability to form memories for new information Retrograde amnesia – Inability to remember information previously stored in memory

29. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Biological Basis of Long-Term Memory Consolidation – The process by which short-term memories are changed to long-term memories

30. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Do We Retrieve Memories? Whether memories are implicit or explicit, successful retrieval depends on how they were encoded and how they are cued

31. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Explicit memory – Memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled How Do We Retrieve Memories? Implicit memory – Memory that was not deliberately learned or of which you have no conscious awareness

32. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Retrieval Cues Retrieval cues – Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior Think of a search engine like Google: if you don’t put in the right search terms you come up with garbage.

33. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Retrieval Cues Priming – Technique for retrieving implicit memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory

34. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Priming If you are presented with the following words: assassin, octopus, avocado, mystery, sheriff, climate

35. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Priming An hour later, you would easily be able to identify which of the following words you had previously seen: twilight, assassin, dinosaur, mystery

36. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 ch_ _ _ _ nk o _ t _ _ _ us _ og _ y _ _ _ _ l _ m _ te Priming However, an hour later, you would also have a much easier time filling in the blanks of some of these words than others:

37. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Priming While you did not actively try to remember “octopus” and “climate” from the first list, they were primed in the reading, which made them easier to identify in this task chipmunk octopus bogeyman climate

38. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Retrieving Explicit Memories Anything stored in LTM must be “filed” according to its pattern or meaning You have to find some kind of meaning or make some kind of connection(elaborative rehearsal)while it is in working memory!

39. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Recall and Recognition Recall – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must reproduce previously presented information (what are the 3 stages of memory?) Recognition – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented (multiple choice ?’s)

40. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Other Factors Affecting Retrieval Encoding specificity principle – The more closely the retrieval clues match the form in which the information was encoded, the better the information will be remembered

41. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Other Factors Affecting Retrieval Mood congruent memory – A memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match one’s mood TOT (tip of the tongue) phenomenon – The inability to recall a word, while knowing that it is in memory

42. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Why Does Memory Sometimes Fail Us? Most of our memory problems arise from memory’s “seven sins” – which are really by-products of otherwise adaptive features of human memory

43. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Transience Absent- Mindedness Blocking MisattributionSuggestibility BiasPersistence Memory’s “Seven Sins”

44. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Transience The impermanence of a long-term memory; based on the idea that long-term memories gradually fade in strength over time (memories fade over time..) Forgetting curve – A graph plotting the amount of retention and forgetting over time for a certain batch of material

45. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve Recall decreases rapidly, then reaches a plateau, after which little more is forgotten Percent retained 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Days 51015202530

46. Key points in Ebbinghaus Study The greatest amount of forgetting occurs during the first day. Relatively meaningless material is lost more often than meaningful material. For example, procedural memories and flashbulb memories. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

47. Absent-Mindedness Forgetting that is caused by lapses in attention. I call this a brain fart! The memory is still there but you have a retrieval failure caused by shifting your attention elsewhere or being distracted.

48. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Blocking Forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved Caused by interference. 3 Main factors that cause interference If material is similar. (Spanish/French) Meaningless material is more vulnerable than meaningful material. Emotional material

49. Proactive interference Proactive interference (pro means forward) Old memories act forward in time to block new memories or learning. In new house, you look for items in the old places at the old home. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

50. Retroactive Interference Newly learned information prevents the retrieval of previously learned material. Retro means backward An example would be driving an automatic car, then forgetting to use clutch when you return to driving stick. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

51. Serial Position Effect A form of interference related to the sequence in which the information is presented. Items in the middle are less remembered than items presented in first or last. Primacy or recency effect An example would be a grocery list. People have a tendency to remember the first item and the last item. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

52. Misattribution Memory fault that occurs when memories are retrieved, but they are associated with the wrong time, place, or person Stop for Activity.

53. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Suggestibility Process of memory distortion as a result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion Misinformation effect – The distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation In study conducted by Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer, witnesses’ responses depended heavily on how the questions were worded. Smashed vs. hit

54. Fabricated Memories The Bunny Effect-Loftus Lost in the mall- Loftus Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

55. Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitnesses: Recollections are less influenced by leading questions if possibility of memory bias is forewarned Passage of time leads to increase in misremembering information Age of the witness matters Confidence in memory is not a sign of accuracy

56. Accuracy of the Eyewitness Eyewitness testimony part 1 Eyewitness testimony Part 2 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

57. Bias An attitude, belief, emotion, or experience that distorts memories Expectancy bias – A tendency to distort recalled events to make them fit one’s expectations Self-consistency bias – Idea that we are more consistent than we actually are

58. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Persistence Memory problem in which unwanted memories cannot be put out of mind

59. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Advantages of the “Seven Sins” of Memory Despite the grief they cause us, the “seven sins” may actually be by-products of adaptive features of memory For example, absent-mindedness is the by- product of the useful ability to shift our attention Misattributions, biases, and suggestibility result from a memory system built to deal with meaning

60. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Improving Memory with Mnemonics Mnemonics – Techniques for improving memory, especially by making connections between new material and information already in long-term memory (K does Karate) Mnemonic strategies include Method of loci (location, location!) Natural language mediators (Roy G Biv)

61. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Do Children Acquire Language? Infants and children face an especially important developmental task with the acquisition of language

62. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Children Acquire Language Innateness theory of language – Children learn language mainly by following an inborn program for acquiring vocabulary and grammar Language acquisition device (LAD) – Structure in the brain innately programmed with some of the fundamental rules of grammar

63. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Children Acquire Language Early stages of language acquisition include the following: The babbling stage The one-word stage The two-word stage Telegraphic speech (short, simple sentences) The naming explosion

64. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Rules of Grammar Grammar – The rules of a language Morphemes – Meaningful units of language that make up words Overregularization – Applying a grammatical rule too widely and thereby creating incorrect forms (e.g. using “hitted” and “feets”)

65. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Children Acquire Language Other language skills Social rules of conversation Abstract words (e.g. hope, truth)

66. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create and manipulate mental representations, such as concepts, images, schemas, and scripts What Are the Components of Thought?

67. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Concepts Concepts – Mental representations of categories of items or ideas, based on experience Natural concepts represent objects and events Artificial concepts are defined by rules We organize much of our declarative memories into concept hierarchies

68. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Animal FishBird SalmonSharkOstrichCanary Has skin Eats Breathes Has fins Can swim Has gills Has wings Can fly Has feathers Can sing Is yellow Can’t fly Is tall Can bite Is dangerous Is pink Is edible

69. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Thought and the Brain Event-related potentials – Brain waves shown on an EEG in response to stimulation Various forms of brain scanning provide glimpses of cognitive processes through new windows. What we must figure out is what this new information is telling us about cognition.

70. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Schemas and Scripts Help you Know What to Expect Schema – A knowledge cluster or general framework that provides expectations about topics, events, objects, people, and situations in one’s life Script – A cluster of knowledge about sequences of events and actions expected to occur in particular settings

71. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Good thinkers not only have a repertoire of effective algorithms and heuristics, they know how to avoid the common impediments to problem solving and decision making What Abilities Do Good Thinkers Possess?

72. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Problem Solving Good problem solvers are skilled at Identifying the problem Selecting a strategy

73. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Selecting a Strategy Algorithms – Problem-solving procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct outcome if correctly applied Heuristics – Cognitive strategies used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks; they do not guarantee a correct solution

74. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Heuristics Useful heuristics include: Working backward Searching for analogies Breaking a big problem into smaller problems

75. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Working Backwards

76. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Obstacles to Problem Solving Mental set – Tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for a previous problem Functional fixedness – Inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose

77. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Unscramble These Words nelin ensce sdlen lecam slfal dlchi neque raspe klsta nolem dlsco hsfle naorg egsta

78. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Unscrambled Words linen scene lends camel falls child queen pears talks melon colds shelf groan gates The algorithm you used to solve the first column probably kept you from seeing the multiple solutions for the words in the second column

79. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Obstacles to Problem Solving Other obstacles include: Self-imposed limitations Lack of interest Fatigue Drugs (legal and illegal)

80. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Nine-Dot Problem... Without lifting your pen from the page, can you connect all nine dots with only four lines?

81. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias

82. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Ignoring or finding fault with information that does not fit our opinions, and seeking information with which we agree

83. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Tendency, after learning about an event, to believe that one could have predicted the event in advance

84. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Faulty heuristic caused by basing (anchoring) an estimate on a completely unrelated quantity

85. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Faulty heuristic strategy based on presumption that, once a person or event is categorized, it shares all features of other members in that category

86. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Faulty heuristic strategy that estimates probabilities based on information that can be recalled from personal experience

87. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 End of Chapter 7