1. Do Now
Look at the picture for 3 minutes. Then answer the questions

2. AIM: How do we store memories?

3. Memory Ms. Simon Chapter 9
MISCONCEPTION: Not a mental “filing” cabinet, not stored away for later retrieval

4. How does memory relate to learning?
1. Memory is an indication that learning has persisted over time.
2. Learning is acquisition, memory is retention
3. Memory is our ability to store and retrieve information.
OBJECTIVE 1| Define memory, and explain how flashbulb memories differ from other memories.
Patient S= Russian journalist with an amazing capacity for memory
Humans have an extraordinary memory capacity for remembering faces
Viewing more than 2500 slides of faces and places for 10 seconds later you see 280 of these slides one at a time, and you recognize 90 percent of those you saw before

5. Flashbulb Memory -Results from unique or emotional moment
-results in a clear, strong memory
President Bush being told of 9/11 attack.
Ask the class to think of one flashbulb memory, share the flashbulb memory with your partner
Do you think flashbulb memories are always accurate?
Ruters/ Corbis
However, this memory is not free from errors.

6. A G D F B Z T M Y
Sperling flashed grid of 9 letters for 1/20th of a second and subjects were asked to recall the top, middle or bottom row immediately after the grid disappeared.
-grid must be held in sensory memory for a split second
Subjects recalled rows perfectly, demosntrates 1rst memory system:
Sensory Memory
Sensory memory- split second holding for incoming sensory information (less than a second)
Sperling- flashed a grid of nine letters, three rows and three columns to participants for 1/20th of a second. The participants in the styudy were directed to recall either the top, middle, or bottom row immediately after the grid was flashed at them.

7. Sensory Memory Split second storage for incoming stimuli Iconic memory
fleeting perfect photograph of a scene
Lasts about 1/10th of a second
Echoic memory- memory for sounds
Lasts about 3/10th of a second
-iconic memory=

8. Stages of Memory Sequential Process Keyboard (Encoding) Disk (Storage)
Monitor
(Retrieval)
Sequential Process

9. Three-stage Model (Information Processing)
The Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model of memory includes a) sensory memory, b) short-term memory, and c) long-term memory.
OBJECTIVE 2| Describe Atkinson-Schiffrin’s classic three-stage model of memory and explain how contemporary model of working memory differs.
The Atkinson-Shiffrin classic three-stage model of memory suggests that we (1) register fleeting sensory memories, some of which are (2) processed into on-screen short-term memories, a tiny fraction of which are (3) encoded for long-term memory and, possibly, later retrieval. In pointing out the limits of this model, contemporary memory researchers note that we register some information automatically, bypassing the first two stages. And they prefer the term working memory (rather than short-term memory) because it emphasizes a more active role in this second processing stage, where we rehearse and manipulate information, associating new stimuli with older stored memories. The working-memory model includes visual-spatial and auditory subsystems, coordinated by a central executive processor that focuses attention where needed. Why might information be lost from the sensory and the short term memory? (Not encoded)
Why might information be lost from Long Term memory?
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Frank Wartenberg/ Picture Press/
Corbis
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works

10. Sensory Memory: only some sensory input is encoded into short-term memory, most is lost….
Why do we encode certain sensory info into short-term?

11. Short term memory lasts 10-30 seconds but can be expanded
Long term memory last minutes,
days, hours, weeks, years

12. Short-term Working Memory
Feature
Sensory
Memory
Short-term Working Memory
LTM
Capacity
Unlimited
7 +/- 2
Very very large
Duration
(info lost from sensory and STM due to not being encoded, lost from LTM from retrieval failure)

13. Do Now: Fill in the table below
Feature
Sensory
Memory
Working Memory
LTM
Capacity
Unlimited
7±2 Chunks
Very Large
Duration
0.20 sec.
20 sec.
Years

14. Typewriter
Fire
Void
Cigarette
Inherent
Process 14

15. Working Memory
Alan Baddeley (2002) proposes that working memory contains auditory and visual processing
In pointing out the limits of this model, contemporary memory researchers note that we register some information automatically, bypassing the first two stages. And they prefer the term working memory (rather than short-term memory) because it emphasizes a more active role in this second processing stage, where we rehearse and manipulate information, associating new stimuli with older stored memories. The working-memory model includes visual-spatial and auditory subsystems, coordinated by a central executive processor that focuses attention where needed. Why might information be lost from the sensory and the short term memory? (Not encoded)

16. AIM: How can we encode memories?

17. Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
Automatic Processing: Some information is automatically encoded
Space
Time
Frequency (how often things happen)
2. Effortful Processing: However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort.
Automatic processing– space, time, frequency, where you put your coat, place on the page where info is, I’ve seen you three times today
Effortful- needs effort and processing (remembering names)

18. Effortful Processing Long lasting memories
OBJECTIVE 4| Contrast effortful processing with automatic processing, and discuss the next-in-line effect, the spacing effect and the serial position effect.
Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit
© Bananastock/ Alamy

19. How can we effortfully process memories?

20. Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition.
Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ
How do you force yourself to memorize something?
Made up nonsense syllables in memory, practiced saying them over and over again
Next day times how long it took it turns, randomly selects a sample of syllables.
The more frequently he repeats the list, the fewer repetiions he’s required to relearn on Day 2.
Hermann Ebbinghaus
( )

21. Rote or Maintenance Rehearsal (repeating to commit to memory)
The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on Day 1,
the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on Day 2.
In other words, practice makes perfect!
a. rote or maintenance rehearsal- simple repetition (saying phone number over and over again)
b. elaborative rehearsal- organization and understanding and relating to previous memories
Q: Which is more likely to be encoded into LTM and be able to retrieved?

22. What We Encode Encoding by meaning (semantic coding)
Encoding by images
Encoding by organization
Craik and Lockhart- Levels of processing theory of memory- information is more likely to be remembered when it is processed at a deep level- relate new info to old info- understand the context

23. Levels of Processing Theory of Memory
“Whale”
Q: Did the word begin
with a capital letter?
Structural
Encoding
Shallow
Q: Did the word rhyme
with the word
“weight”?
Phonemic
Encoding
Intermediate
OBJECTIVE 5| Compare the benefits of visual, acoustic, and semantic encoding in remembering verbal information, and describe a memory-enhancing strategy related to the self-referent effect.
Fergus Craig and Endel Tulving flashed words at people, they asked a ursiton that required people to process the words 1) visualy, 2) acousitcally, and 3) semantically.
Q: Would the word fit
in the sentence?
He met a __________
in the street.
Semantic
Encoding
Deep
Craik and Lockhart (1972)

24. Semantic Encoding: Encoding using meaning

25. Visual Encoding
Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.
OBJECTIVE 6| Explain how encoding imagery aids effortful processing, and describes some memory-enhancing strategies that use visual encoding.
Recall words:
Recall sentence:
Both photos: Ho/AP Photo
Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking
in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.

26. Do Now: Pass forward Psych Sim What is MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL
Do Now: Pass forward Psych Sim What is MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL? How does it differ from ELABORATIVE ENCODING?

27. Whole Report R G T F M Q L Z S “Recall” R T M Z (44% recall)
Sperling (1960)
R G T F M Q L Z S
“Recall”
R T M Z
(44% recall)
50 ms (1/20 second)
The exposure time for the stimulus is so small
that items cannot be rehearsed. 27

28. Partial Report S X T J R S P K Y “Recall” J R S (100% recall) Low Tone
Medium Tone
High Tone
“Recall”
J R S
(100% recall)
50 ms (1/20 second)
Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity was larger than what was originally thought. 28

29. Time Delay A D I N L V O G H “Recall” N _ _ (33% recall) Low Tone
Medium Tone
High Tone
“Recall”
N _ _
(33% recall)
Time
Delay
50 ms (1/20 second) 29

30. The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss.
Sensory Memory
The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss. 20 40 60 80
Percent Recognized
0.15
0.30
0.50
1.00
Time (Seconds) 30

31. The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.
Sensory Memories
The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.
Iconic
0.5 sec. long
Echoic
3-4 sec. long
Hepatic
< 1 sec. long 31

32. AIM: Why do we remember some information…. And forget the rest?

33. Memory Effects
Next-in-line-Effect: When you are so anxious about being next that you cannot remember what the person just before you in line says
Spacing Effect: We retain information better when we rehearse over time.
Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items.
a. primacy effect- beginning
b. recency effect- later info
The next-in-line effect is our tendency to forget what the person ahead of us in line has said because we are focusing on what we will say in our upcoming turn to speak. The spacing effect is our tendency to retain information more easily if we practice it repeatedly than if we practice it in one long session. The serial position effect is our tendency to remember the last and first items in a long list (for example, a grocery list) better than the middle items.
Practice serial position effect:
Who is credited with operant conditioning?
Who is credited with dsicvoering classical conditioning? 33 33

34. ACQUAINTED WITH THE NIGHT
Spacing Effect
Distributing rehearsal (spacing effect) is better than practicing all at once.
ACQUAINTED WITH THE NIGHT
Robert Frost
I have been one acquainted with the night. I have walked out in rain — and back in rain. I have outwalked the furthest city light.
… …
Rehearsal is distributed over time- phenomenon where you learn one verse at a time.
When do you remember best?
Learn material, review for an hour each day for three consecutive days prior to an exam, view three hours the night before the exam
Review an hour/week, 3 weeks before
Review an hour/week 3 weeks before the exam.
Which is better for lifelong retention?
SPACED STUDYING BEATS CRAMMING 34 34

35. Serial Position Effect
TUV
ZOF
GEK
WAV
XOZ
TIK
FUT
WIB
SAR
POZ
REY
GIJ
Better recall
Poor recall
The remember the first and last items better than those in the middle, perhaps because the last items are still in working memory, people briefly recall them especially quickly and well. After a delay, shifting their attention from the last items, recall is best for the first items. 35 35

36. Mnemonic techniques are memory devices
Mnemonics
Mnemonic techniques are memory devices
Method of Loci
“Pegword System”
Chunking
Hierarchy
Mnemonic techniques usually rely on vivid imagery
Geek scholars who reemembered lengthy assages and speeches, moving through familiar series of locations. Orator would mentally revisit each location

37. Method of Loci List of Items Imagined Locations Charcoal Backyard Pens
Bed Sheets
Hammer .
Rug
Imagined Locations
Backyard
Study
Bedroom
Garage .
Living Room

38. Link Method List of Items Newspaper Shaving cream Pen Umbrella . Lamp
One is a bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree, four is a door, five is a hive, six is sticks, seven is heaven, eight is gate, nine is swine, ten is hen
Linking an automatic processing with effortful processing- frequency and time
Involves forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together.

39. Organizing Information for Encoding
Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide them
Chunking
Hierarchy
OBJECTIVE 7| Discuss the use of chunking and hierarchies in effortful processing.
Outlining is effective
Ask what techniques students use for organizing information

40. GHA TUV SOW RRT

41. MTV FBI WTF LOL

42. Chunking
Organizing items into a familiar, manageable unit. Try to remember the numbers below.
If you are well versed with American history, chunk the numbers together and see if you can recall them better

43. Acronyms are another way of chunking information to remember it.
HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
PEMDAS = Parentheses, Exponent, Multiply, Divide, Add, Subtract
ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet

44. Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories.

45. Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy

46. Storage: Retaining Information
Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown below:
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval

47. Sensory Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Events
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
OBJECTIVE 8| Contrast two types of sensory memory.
Retrieval

48. Working Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Events
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
OBJECTIVE 9| Describe the duration and working capacity of short-term memory.
Retrieval

49. Working Memory
Working memory, the new name for short-term memory, has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short duration (20 seconds).
Sir George Hamilton observed that he could accurately remember up
to 7 beans thrown on the floor. If there were more beans, he guessed.

50. Working Memory Duration

51. Long-Term Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Events
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
OBJECTIVE 10| Describe the capacity and duration of long-term memory.
Retrieval

52. AIM: How do we store memories?

54. Long-Term Memory
Unlimited capacity store. Estimates on capacity range from 1000 billion to 1,000,000 billion bits of information (Landauer, 1986).
Rajan Mahadevan- 10 digits from the first 30,000 digits of pi and he would pick up a series from there
50 random digits backwards
R.J. Erwin/ Photo Researchers
The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of
buried pine seeds during winter and spring.

55. Memory Stores Feature Sensory Memory Working Memory LTM Encoding
Exact Copy
Phonemic
Semantic
Capacity
Unlimited
7±2 Chunks
Very Large
Duration
0.20 sec.
20 sec.
Years

56. Storing Memories in the Brain
Through electrical stimulation of the brain, Wilder Penfield concluded that old memories were etched into the brain.
Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested that even after removing parts of the brain, the animals retain partial memory of the maze.
Penfield Loftus and Loftus (1980) reviewed Penfield's data and showed that only a handful of brain stimulated patients reported flashbacks. Electrically stimulates different cortical regions of brain patients, patients occasionally hear things from their childhood.
Psychologists have nonetheless tried to isolate a memory center- teach rats a maze and then cut out parts of brain- some memory always seems to remain

57. Synaptic Changes
In Aplysia serotonin release from neurons increases after conditioning.
OBJECTIVE 11| Discuss the synaptic changes that accompany memory formation and storage.
Study in 1982, classically condition sea snails with electrical shock to reflexively withdraw its gills when squirted with water. Observe before and after, when learning occurs, the snail releases more of the neurotransmitter serotonin at certain synapses. This causes them to be more effective at transmitting signals
Photo: Scientific American

58. Do Now: What is meant by the term “Long Term Potentiation?”

59. Synaptic Changes
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)= synaptic enhancement after learning (Lynch, 2002). An increase in neurotransmitter release or receptors indicates strengthening of synapses.
Both Photos: From N. Toni et al., Nature, 402, Nov Courtesy of Dominique Muller
Receptors on on the receiving neuron
Electron microscope images of neuron before and after long-term potentiation. More receptors indicates that the neuron is more sensitive for detecting the neurotransmitter
Cognitive enhancer= drugs currently in some phase od clinical trial development, such as CREB protein

60. AIM: How are memories stored in the brain?

61. Stress Hormones & Memory
Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories.
Continued stress may disrupt memory.
OBJECTIVE 12| Discuss some ways stress hormones can affect memory.
Studies show that long-term exposure to stress shrinks the hippocampus
Sudden flow of stress hormones can block older memories
Sudden stressful situation activates the sympathetic nervous sytem, causes more glucose to be available to fuel brain activity, allowing for better memory processing. Amygdala may also be activated by emotionally stressful situations.
Chronic stress can damage the hippocampus and decrease memory capacity.
Scott Barbour/ Getty Images

62. Types of Memory
Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.
Implicit (procedural) memory how to do something, a skill
Example: Riding a bike
explicit (book calls it declarative)- deliberate conscious recall- trying to think about it
ex: when someone asks you about what you did over vacation, you are using explicit; episodic and semantic are explicit
implicit (book calls it nondeclarative ) – unintentional recollection or prior experiences; procedural and conditioning are implicit

63. Implicit (procedural) memory how to do something, a skill
Types of Memory
Implicit (procedural) memory how to do something, a skill
Example: Riding a bike
procedural- how to do something- a skill (riding a bike, tying a shoe-lace, your locker combo)
Memories can be

64. Explicit= Declarative Implicit= Procedural

65. Types of Explicit Memory Episodic- autobiographical events personally experienced Example: When is your birthday?
Semantic: Words, Ideas, Concepts Example: What is the capital of France?
episodic- memory of events personally experienced
semantic- general world knowledge

67. Classify each as implicit or explicit memory.
If it is explicit, indicate if it is semantic or episodic.
Knowing how to tie your shoe-
The history of your grandparent-
How to cook-
Typing-
Your last summer vacation-
The causes of World War Two-
What you ate during lunch-
The sound of the school bell causing you to instinctively reach for your backpack:
Period 3 end here

68. Do Now: Quiz

69. AIM: How do we retrieve memories from our long-term storage?

70. Hippocampus Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic
system that processes explicit memories.
Weidenfield & Nicolson archives

71. Retrograde amnesia: lose old memories, can still form new ones
Anterograde Amnesia
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) suffered from anterograde amnesia: he remembers everything before the operation but cannot make new memories.
Retrograde amnesia: lose old memories, can still form new ones
Memory Intact
No New Memories
Anterograde
Amnesia
(HM)
Surgery

72. Implicit Memory HM is unable to make new memories that are
declarative (explicit), but he can form new
memories that are procedural (implicit). C B A
HM learned the Tower of Hanoi (game) after his surgery. Each time he plays it, he is unable to remember the fact that he has already played the game.

73. Cerebellum Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain
that processes implicit memories.
Joseph Le Doux brain damaged patient whose amnesia left her unable tor ecognize her physician as, each day, he shook her hand. One day, after reaching for his hand, she yanks hers back because physcician has pricked her. Now uncomfortable with her doctor.

74. Amygdala Recent studies show the amygdala is involved in
processing emotional
memories
Emotionally charged events are remembered better
Pleasant emotions are usually remembered better than unpleasant ones
Positive memories contain more contextual details (which in turn, helps memory)
Strong emotion can impair memory for less emotional events and information experienced at the same time
It's the emotional arousal, not the importance of the information, that helps memory
What would happen to someone with damage to their amygdala?
They would not be able to properly process fear

76. Do Now: 1. What is long-term potentiation. 2
Do Now: 1. What is long-term potentiation? 2. How can stress have two different effects on memory?

77. AIM: Why do we forget?

78. Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store.
OBJECTIVE 14| Contrast the recall, recognition, and relearning measures of memory.
Recall is a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. Recognition is a measure in which a person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test. Relearning is a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when relearning previously learned information. Tests of recognition and relearning reveal that we remember more than we recall.
Spanky’s Yearbook Archive
Spanky’s Yearbook Archive

79. Measures of Memory
In recognition, the person must identify an item amongst other choices. (A multiple-choice test requires recognition.)
Given prime: cue
Name the capital of France.
Brussels
Rome
London
Paris

80. Measures of Memory
In recall, the person must retrieve information using effort. (A fill-in-the blank test requires recall.)
The capital of France is ______.

81. Measures of Memory
In relearning, the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material for the second time.
List
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite …
Silk
Frog
Ring
List
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite …
Silk
Frog
Ring
Original
Trials
Relearning
Trials
1 day later
Saving
X 100
Original
Trials 10 5
X 100 10
It took 10 trials
to learn this list
It took 5 trials
to learn the list
50%

82. Memories are held in storage by a semantic web of associations.
Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a semantic web of associations.
water
smell
hose
Fire Truck
fire
OBJECTIVE 15| Explain how retrieval cues help us access stored memories, and describe the process of priming.
We can think of a memory as held in storage by a web of associations. Retrieval cues are bits of related information we encode while encoding a target piece of information. They become part of the web. To retrieve a specific memory, we need to identify one of the strands that leads to it, a process called priming. Activating retrieval cues within our web of associations aids memory.
smoke
truck
heat
red

83. Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon: instance of
Priming
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must prime it: activate one of the strands that leads to it.
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon: instance of
knowing something but being unable to place the word, due to a failure of retrieve
The tip of the tongue (TOT or Tot or Presque vu, from the French for "almost seen") phenomenon is an instance of knowing something that cannot immediately be recalled. TOT is an experiencewith memory recollection involving difficulty retrieving a well-known word or familiar name. When experiencing TOT, people feel that the blocked word is on the verge of being recovered. Despite failure in finding the word, people have the feeling that the blocked word is figuratively "on the tip of the tongue." Inaccessibility and the sense of imminence are two key features of an operational definition of TOTs (A.S. Brown, 1991).

84. Context Effects
Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land
Period 9 End Here/ period 3
Fred McConnaughey/ Photo Researchers

85. Context Effects
After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants most strongly respond when retested in the same context rather than in a different context
OBJECTIVE 16| Cite some ways that context can affect retrieval.
Retrieval is sometimes aided by returning to the original context in which we experienced an event or encoded a thought. It can flood our memories with retrieval cues that lead to the target memory. Sometimes, being in a context similar to one we’ve been in before may trick us into unconsciously retrieving the target memory. The result is a feeling that we are reliving something that we have experienced before—a phenomenon known as déjà vu.
Courtesy of Carolyn Rovee-Collier,
Rutgers University

86. December 18, 2009 Do Now: What is long-term potentiation?
How can stress have two different effects on memory?
What is priming?
Long-term potentiation- in response to increased activity in neural pathways, neural interconnections form or strengthen. In experiments we find that rapidly stimulating certain memory-circuit connections, such as in the aplysia, can increase the sensitivity and strengthen the connections.
Drugs that block long term potentation can interfere with learning.
Priming: To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming.

87. Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues.
Moods and States
Mood-congruent memory: We recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood.
State-dependent Memory: We recall events while in certain states of consciousness
OBJECTIVE 17| Describe the effects of internal states on retrieval.
Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues.
State-depednent memory:
State-dependent memory is the tendency to recall information best in the same emotional or physiological state as when the information was learned. Memories are somewhat mood-congruent. While in a good or bad mood, we often retrieve memories consistent with that mood. Moods also prime us to interpret others’ behavior in ways consistent with our emotions.
Jorgen Schytte/ Still Pictures
Both moods and states serve as retrieval cues.

88. Why do we forget?
The angry rioter threw the rock at the window

89. An inability to retrieve information due to:
Forgetting
An inability to retrieve information due to:
Poor encoding- not semantically encoded (no meaning)
Poor storage
Poor retrieval- unable to bring into working memory
OBJECTIVE 18| Explain why we should value our ability to forget, and distinguish three general ways our memory fails us.
Period 6 end here

90. We cannot remember what we do not encode.
Encoding Failure
We cannot remember what we do not encode.
OBJECTIVE 19| Discuss the role of encoding failure in forgetting.

91. Which penny is real?

92. Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay.
Storage Decay
Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay.
(Level of Processing Model)- we tend to store deeply processed memories
OBJECTIVE 20| Discuss the concept of storage decay, and describe Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve.
Ebbinghaus showed this with his forgetting curve.
Level of Processing Model: memories are neither short nor long-term, they are deeply processed or shallowly processed. We remember things we spend more cognitive time and energy processing. This theory explains why we remember stories better than a asimple recitation of events.

93. Retrieval Failure
Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed.
Retrieval failure can occur if we have too few cues to summon information from long-term memory. It may also happen when old and new information compete for retrieval. Proactive interference= something we learned in the past interferes with ur ability to recall something we have recently learned. Retroactive interference- something we have recently learned interferes with something we learned in the past.
Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes blood cells red?) the subject says the word begins with an H (hemoglobin).

94. Interference Learning some new information may disrupt
retrieval of other information.
Proactive Interference: earlier information will interfere with later learned information
Retroactive Interference: recently learned information interferes with earlier information
OBJECTIVE 21| Contrast proactive and retroactive interference, and explain how they can cause retrieval failure.
Retrieval failure can occur if we have too few cues to summon information from long-term memory. It may also happen when old and new information compete for retrieval. In proactive interference, something we learned in the past interferes with our ability to recall something we have recently learned.

95. Retroactive Interference
Sleep prevents retroactive interference. Therefore, it
leads to better recall.
Write on board: What does this graph show us?
Retroactive interference- something we just learned interferes with older information we are trying to recall

96. Do Now:
Contrast retroactive and proactive interference

97. AIM: Can we intentionally forget?

98. Motivated Forgetting
Motivated Forgetting: People unknowingly revise their memories.
Repression: A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
OBJECTIVE 22| Summarize Freud's concept of repression, and state whether this view is reflected in current memory research.
FREUD- concept of repression, Freud proposes that memories are self-censoring. To protect our self concepts and minimize anxiety we may block painful memories from consciousness.
Increasingly we believe that repression rarely, I ever occurs.
Culver Pictures
Sigmund Freud

99. Why do we forget? Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
We filter, alter, or lose much information during these stages.
We automatically encode sensory information in great detail, but why is it that we can only retrieve limited amounts of information from our memory store?

100. Memory Construction
While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make our recall more coherent.
Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

101. Misinformation and Imagination Effects
Eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories when questioned about the event.
OBJECTIVE 23| Explain how misinformation and imagination can distort our memory of an event.
People witness an event, receive misleading information, and take a memory test.
Collision versus crash
Famous study were Loftus shows people a film of a traffic accident and then quizzes them about what they saw. Those who were asked “How fast were the cars going when they smashed into eachother” gave higher speed estimates than those asked “How fast were the cars foinf whe they hit eachother?”
A week later, the researchers asked the viewers if they recalled seeing any broken glass. Compared with those asked the question with “hit,” those who had heard “smashed” were more than twice as likely to say that they had seen broken glass (even though there was no broken glass)
Depiction of the actual accident.

102. Misinformation
Group A: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
Group B: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?

103. Memory Construction
A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit).

104. Source Amnesia
Source Amnesia: Attributing an event to the wrong source that we experienced, heard, read, or imagined (misattribution).
OBJECTIVE 24| Describe source amnesia’s contributions to false memories
When we encode memories, we distribute different aspects of them to different parts of the brain.
Our memory for the source of an event is particularly frail. In source amnesia, we attribute to the
wrong source an event that we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. Thus, we
may recognize someone but have no idea where we have seen the person. Or we imagine or dream
an event and later are uncertain whether it actually happened. Source amnesia is one of the main
components of false memories.

105. Discerning True & False Memories
Just like true perception and illusion, real memories and memories that seem real are difficult to discern.
OBJECTIVE 25| List some differences and similarities between true and false memories.
Unreal memories feel like real memories. Neither the sincerity nor the longevity of a memory
signifies that it is real. The most confident and consistent eyewitnesses are often not the most
accurate.
Memories of imagined experiences are usually limited to the gist of the supposed event—the
meanings and feelings we associate with it. True memories contain more details than imagined
ones.
© Simon Niedsenthal
When students formed a happy or angry memory of
morphed (computer blended) faces, they made
the (computer assisted) faces (a), either happier or (b) angrier.

106. False Memories Repressed or Constructed?
Some adults actually do forget childhood episodes of abuse.
False Memory Syndrome
A condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of a traumatic experience, which is sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists.

107. Children’s Eyewitness Recall
Children’s eyewitness recall can be unreliable if leading questions are posed. However, if cognitive interviews are neutrally worded, the accuracy of their recall increases.
OBJECTIVE 26| Give arguments supporting and rejecting the position that very young children's reports are reliable.
In cases of sexual abuse, this usually suggests a lower percentage of abuse.