1. 1 Levels of Organization Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology Unit
Frederic H. Martini
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Professor Albia Dugger, Miami–Dade College, Miami, FL
Professor Robert R. Speed, Ph.D., Wallace Community College, Dothan, AL
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

2. Chapter 4: The Tissue Level of Organization

3. What are the four tissues of the body?

4. Epithelial Tissue Covers exposed surfaces Lines internal passageways
Forms glands

5. Connective Tissue Fills internal spaces Supports other tissues
Transports materials
Stores energy

6. Muscle Tissue Specialized for contraction
Skeletal muscle, heart muscle, and walls of hollow organs

7. Neural Tissue
Carries electrical signals from 1 part of the body to another

8. KEY CONCEPT
Tissues are collections of cells and cell products that perform specific, limited functions
4 tissue types form all the structures of the human body:
epithelial, connective, muscle, and neural

9. Epithelial Tissues Epithelia: Glands:
layers of cells covering internal or external surfaces
Glands:
structures that produce secretions

10. What are the special structures and functions of epithelial tissues?

11. Characteristics of Epithelia
Cellularity (cell junctions)
Polarity (apical and basal surfaces)
Attachment (basal lamina)
Avascularity
Regeneration

12. Functions of Epithelial Tissue
Provide physical protection
Control permeability
Provide sensation
Produce specialized secretions (glandular epithelium)

13. Specializations of Epithelial Cells
Move fluids over the epithelium (protection)
Move fluids through the epithelium (permeability)
Produce secretions (protection and messengers)

14. Free Surface and Attached Surface
Polarity:
apical and basolateral surfaces
Figure 4–1

15. Increasing Surface Area
Microvilli increase absorption or secretion
Cilia (ciliated epithelium) move fluids

16. Effective Barriers Physical integrity is maintained by:
intercellular connections
attachment to basal lamina
maintenance and repair

17. Intercellular Connections
Support and communication
PLAY
Intercellular Connections
Figure 4–2a

18. Large Connections CAMs (cell adhesion molecules):
transmembrane proteins
Intercellular cement:
Proteoglycans

19. Cell Junctions Form bonds with other cells or extracellular material:
tight junctions
gap junctions
desmosomes

20. Tight Junctions
Between 2 cell membranes
Figure 4–2b

21. Tight Junctions Adhesion belt attaches to terminal web
Prevents passage of water and solutes
Isolates wastes in the lumen

22. Gap Junctions
Allow rapid communications
Figure 4–2c

23. Gap Junctions
Held together by channel proteins (junctional proteins, connexons)
Allow ions to pass
Coordinated contractions in heart muscle

24. Desmosomes
CAMs, dense areas, and intercellular cement
Figure 4–2d

25. Desmososmes Button desmosomes Ties cells together
Allow bending and twisting

26. Attachment to Basal Lamina
Hemidesmosomes
Figure 4–2e

27. Repairing and Replacing Epithelia
Epithelia are replaced by division of germinative cells (stem cells)
Near basal lamina

28. Classes of Epithelia
Based on shape and layers
Table 4–1

29. Layers Simple epithelium: Stratified epithelium: single layer of cells
several layers of cells

30. Cell Shape Squamous epithelia: Cuboidal epithelia: Columnar epithelia:
flat shaped
Cuboidal epithelia:
square shaped
Columnar epithelia:
tall shaped

31. Squamous Epithelia Simple squamous epithelium: Mesothelium:
absorption and diffusion
Mesothelium:
lines body cavities
Endothelium:
lines heart and blood vessels

32. Simple Squamous Epithelium
Figure 4–3a

33. Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Figure 4–3b

34. Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Protects against attacks
Keratin proteins add strength and water resistance

35. Cuboidal Epithelia Simple cuboidal epithelium:
secretion and absorption
Stratified cuboidal epithelia:
sweat and mammary ducts

36. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Kidney tubules
Figure 4–4a

37. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
Sweat gland ducts
Figure 4–4b

38. Transitional Epithelium
Urinary bladder
Figure 4–4c

39. Columnar Epithelia Simple columnar epithelium:
absorption and secretion
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium:
cilia movement
Stratified columnar epithelium:
protection

40. Simple Columnar Epithelium
Intestinal lining
Figure 4–5a

41. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
Trachea
Figure 4–5b

42. Stratified Columnar Epithelium
Salivary gland duct
Figure 4–5c

43. Glandular Epithelia Endocrine and exocrine glands
PLAY
Mechanisms of Glandular Secretion
Figure 4–6

44. Endocrine Glands
Release hormones:
into interstitial fluid
no ducts

45. Exocrine Glands Produce secretions: onto epithelial surfaces
through ducts

46. Modes of Secretion
Merocrine secretion
Figure 4–6a

47. Modes of Secretion
Apocrine secretion
Figure 4–6b

48. Modes of Secretion
Holocrine secretion
Figure 4–6c

49. Merocrine Secretions Are produced in Golgi apparatus
Are released by vesicles (exocytosis)
e.g., sweat glands

50. Apocrine Secretions Are produced in Golgi apparatus
Are released by shedding cytoplasm
e.g., mammary gland

51. Holocrine Secretions
Are released by cells bursting, killing gland cells
Gland cells replaced by stem cells
e.g., sebaceous gland

52. Types of Secretions Serous glands: Mucous glands:
watery secretions
Mucous glands:
secrete mucins
Mixed exocrine glands:
both serous and mucous

53. Gland Structure Exocrine glands can be classified as:
unicellular glands
multicellular glands

54. Unicellular Glands
Goblet cells are the only unicellular exocrine glands:
scattered among epithelia
e.g., in intestinal lining

55. Structure of Multicellular Exocrine Glands
Structural classes of exocrine glands
Figure 4–7 (1 of 2)

56. Structure of Multicellular Exocrine Glands
Figure 4–7 (2 of 2)

57. What are the structures and functions of different types of connective tissues?

58. Connective Tissues
Connect epithelium to the rest of the body (basal lamina)
Provide structure (bone)
Store energy (fat)
Transport materials (blood)
Have no contact with environment

59. Characteristics of Connective Tissues
Specialized cells
Solid extracellular protein fibers
Fluid extracellular ground substance

60. The Matrix
The extracellular components of connective tissues (fibers and ground substance):
majority of cell volume
determines specialized function

61. Classification of Connective Tissues
Connective tissue proper:
connect and protect
Fluid connective tissues:
transport
Supportive connective tissues:
structural strength

62. Connective Tissue Proper
Figure 4–8

63. Connective Tissue Proper
Components of connective tissue proper

64. Categories of Connective Tissue Proper
Loose connective tissue:
more ground substance, less fibers
e.g., fat (adipose tissue)
Dense connective tissue:
more fibers, less ground substance
e.g., tendons

65. 8 Cell Types of Connective Tissue Proper
Fibroblasts
Macrophages
Adipocytes
Mesenchymal cells
Melanocytes
Mast cells
Lymphocytes
Microphages

66. Fibroblasts The most abundant cell type:
found in all connective tissue proper
secrete proteins and hyaluronan (cellular cement)

67. Macrophages Large, amoeba-like cells of the immune system:
eat pathogens and damaged cells
fixed macrophages stay in tissue
free macrophages migrate

68. Adipocytes
Fat cells:
each cell stores a single, large fat droplet

69. Mesenchymal Cells Stem cells that respond to injury or infection:
differentiate into fibroblasts, macrophages, etc.

70. Melanocytes
Synthesize and store the brown pigment melanin

71. Mast Cells Stimulate inflammation after injury or infection:
release histamine and heparin
Basophils are mast cells carried by blood

72. Lymphocytes Specialized immune cells in lymphatic system:
e.g., plasma cells which produce antibodies

73. Microphages Phagocytic blood cells:
respond to signals from macrophages and mast cells
e.g., neutrophils and eosinophils

74. Fibers in Connective Tissue Proper
Collagen fibers:
most common fibers in CTP
long, straight, and unbranched
strong and flexible
resists force in 1 direction
e.g., tendons and ligaments

75. Fibers in Connective Tissue Proper
Reticular fibers:
network of interwoven fibers (stroma)
strong and flexible
resists force in many directions
stabilizes functional cells (parenchyma) and structures
e.g., sheaths around organs

76. Fibers in Connective Tissue Proper
Elastic fibers:
contain elastin
branched and wavy
return to original length after stretching
e.g., elastic ligaments of vertebrae

77. Ground Substance In connective tissue proper and ground substance:
is clear, colorless, and viscous
fills spaces between cells and slows pathogens

78. Embryonic Connective Tissues
Are not found in adults
Mesenchyme (embryonic stem cells):
the first connective tissue in embryos
Mucous connective tissue:
loose embryonic connective tissue

79. Loose Connective Tissues
The packing materials of the body
3 types in adults:
areolar
adipose
reticular

80. Areolar Tissue Least specialized Open framework
Viscous ground substance
Elastic fibers
Holds blood vessels and capillary beds:
e.g., under skin (subcutaneous layer)

81. Adipose Tissue
Contains many adipocytes (fat cells)
Figure 4–10a

82. Types of Adipose Tissue
White fat:
most common
stores fat
absorbs shocks
slows heat loss (insulation)

83. Types of Adipose Tissue
Brown fat:
more vascularized
adipocytes have many mitochondria
breaks down fat
produces heat

84. Adipose Cells Adipocytes in adults do not divide:
expand to store fat
shrink as fats are released
Mesenchymal cells divide and differentiate:
to produce more fat cells
when more storage is needed

85. Reticular Tissue
Provides support
Figure 4–10b

86. Reticular Tissue Complex, 3-dimensional network
Supportive fibers (stroma):
support functional cells (parenchyma)
Reticular organs:
spleen, liver, lymph nodes, and bone marrow

87. Dense Connective Tissues
Connective tissues proper, tightly packed with high numbers of collagen or elastic fibers:
dense regular connective tissue
dense irregular connective tissue
elastic tissue

88. Dense Regular Connective Tissue
Attachment and stabilization
Figure 4–11a

89. Dense Regular Connective Tissues
Tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers:
tendons attach muscles to bones
ligaments connect bone to bone and stabilize organs
aponeuroses attach in sheets on large, flat muscles

90. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
Strength in many directions
Figure 4–11b

91. Dense Irregular Connective Tissues
Interwoven networks of collagen fibers:
layered in skin
around cartilages (perichondrium)
around bones (periosteum)
form capsules around some organs (e.g., liver, kidneys)

92. Elastic Tissue Made of elastic fibers:
e.g., elastic ligaments of spinal vertebrae
Figure 4–11c

93. Fluid Connective Tissues
blood and lymph
watery matrix of dissolved proteins
carry specific cell types (formed elements)

94. Formed Elements of Blood
Figure 4–12

95. Formed Elements of Blood
Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
White blood cells (leukocytes)
Platelets

96. Fluid Elements of Blood
Extracellular:
plasma
interstitial fluid
lymph

97. Lymph Extracellular fluid: collected from interstitial space
monitored by immune system
transported by lymphatic system
returned to venous system

98. Fluid Tissue Transport Systems
Cardiovascular system (blood):
arteries
capillaries
veins
Lymphatic system (lymph):
lymphatic vessels

99. Supportive Connective Tissues
Support soft tissues and body weight:
cartilage:
gel-type ground substance
for shock absorption and protection
bone:
calcified (made rigid by calcium salts, minerals)
for weight support

100. Cartilage Matrix Proteoglycans derived from chondroitin sulfates
Ground substance proteins
Cells (chondrocytes) surrounded by lacunae (chambers)

101. Cartilage Structure No blood vessels: Perichondrium:
chondrocytes produce antiangiogenesis factor
Perichondrium:
outer, fibrous layer (for strength)
inner, cellular layer (for growth and maintenance)

102. Cartilage Growth (1 of 2)
Interstitial growth
Figure 4–13a

103. Cartilage Growth (2 of 2)
Appositional growth
Figure 4–13b

104. Types of Cartilage Hyaline cartilage: Elastic cartilage:
translucent matrix
no prominent fibers
Elastic cartilage:
tightly packed elastic fibers
Fibrocartilage:
very dense collagen fibers

105. Hyaline Cartilage
Reduces friction in joints
Figure 4–14a

106. Hyaline Cartilage Hyaline cartilage: stiff, flexible support
reduces friction between bones
found in synovial joints, rib tips, sternum, and trachea

107. Elastic Cartilage
Flexible support
Figure 4–14b

108. Elastic Cartilage Elastic cartilage: supportive but bends easily
found in external ear and epiglottis

109. Fibrocartilage
Resists compression
Figure 4–14c

110. Fibrocartilage Limits movement Prevents bone-to-bone contact
Pads knee joints
Found between pubic bones and intervertebral discs

111. Bone Also called osseous tissue:
strong (calcified: calcium salt deposits)
resists shattering (flexible collagen fibers)

112. Structures of Bone
Figure 4–15

113. Bone Cells Osteocytes: arranged around central canals within matrix
small channels through matrix (canaliculi) access blood supply

114. Bone Surface Periosteum: covers bone surfaces fibrous layer
cellular layer

115. Comparing Cartilage and Bone
Table 4–2

116. connective tissues combine to form 4 types of membranes?
How do epithelial and
connective tissues combine to
form 4 types of membranes?

117. Membranes Membranes: Consist of: are physical barriers
that line or cover portions of the body
Consist of:
an epithelium
supported by connective tissues

118. 4 Types of Membranes
Mucous
Serous
Cutaneous
Synovial
Figure 4–16

119. Mucous Membrane Mucous membranes (mucosae):
line passageways that have external connections
also in digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts

120. Structure of Mucous Membrane
Figure 4–16a

121. Mucous Tissues Epithelial surfaces must be moist: Lamina propria:
to reduce friction
to facilitate absorption and excretion
Lamina propria:
is areolar tissue

122. Serous Membranes Line cavities not open to the outside
Are thin but strong
Have fluid transudate to reduce friction

123. Structure of Serous Membrane
Figure 4–16b

124. Double Membranes Serous membranes:
have a parietal portion covering the cavity
and a visceral portion (serosa) covering the organs

125. Cavities and Serous Membranes
Pleural membrane:
lines pleural cavities
covers lungs
Peritoneum:
lines peritoneal cavity
covers abdominal organs
Pericardium:
lines pericardial cavity
covers heart

126. Cutaneous Membrane Cutaneous membrane: is skin, surface of the body
thick, waterproof, and dry

127. Structure of Cutaneous Membrane
Figure 4–16c

128. Synovial Membranes Line articulating (moving) joint cavities
Produce synovial fluid (lubricant)
Protect the ends of bones
Lack a true epithelium

129. Structure of Synovial Membranes
Figure 4–16d

130. How do connective tissues form the framework of the body?

131. Framework of the Body Connective tissues:
provide strength and stability
maintain positions of internal organs
provides routes for blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves

132. Fasciae Also called fascia: the body’s framework of connective tissue
layers and wrappings that support or surround organs

133. 3 Types of Fasciae
Superficial fascia
Figure 4–17

134. 3 Types of Fasciae
Deep fascia
Figure 4–17

135. 3 Types of Fasciae
Subserous fascia
Figure 4–17

136. What are the structures and functions of the three types of muscle tissue?

137. Muscle Tissue Is specialized for contraction
Produces all body movement

138. 3 Types of Muscle Tissue Skeletal muscle: Cardiac muscle:
large body muscles responsible for movement
Cardiac muscle:
found only in the heart

139. 3 Types of Muscle Tissue Smooth muscle:
found in walls of hollow, contracting organs (blood vessels; urinary bladder; respiratory, digestive and reproductive tracts)

140. Classification of Muscle Cells
Striated (muscle cells with a banded appearance):
or nonstriated (not banded)
Muscle cells can have a single nucleus:
or be multinucleate
Muscle cells can be controlled voluntarily (consciously):
or involuntarily (automatically)

141. Skeletal Muscle
Striated, voluntary, and ultinucleated
Figure 4–18a

142. Skeletal Muscle Cells Skeletal muscle cells: are long and thin
are usually called muscle fibers
do not divide
new fibers are produced by stem cells (satellite cells)

143. Cardiac Muscle Tissue Striated, involuntary, and single nucleus
Figure 4–18b

144. Cardiac Muscle Cells Cardiac muscle cells: are called cardiocytes
form branching networks connected at intercalated disks
are regulated by pacemaker cells

145. Smooth Muscle Tissue Nonstriated, involuntary, and single nucleus
Figure 4–18c

146. Smooth Muscle Cells Smooth muscle cells: are small and tapered
can divide and regenerate

147. What is the basic structure and role of neural tissue?

148. Neural Tissue Also called nervous or nerve tissue:
specialized for conducting electrical impulses
rapidly senses internal or external environment
process information and controls responses

149. Central Nervous System
Neural tissue is concentrated in the central nervous system:
brain
spinal cord

150. 2 Kinds of Neural Cells Neurons: Neuroglia: nerve cells
perform electrical communication
Neuroglia:
support cells
repair and supply nutrients to neurons

151. Cell Parts of a Neuron Cell body: Dendrites:
contains the nucleus and nucleolus
Dendrites:
short branches extending from the cell body
receive incoming signals

152. Cell Parts of a Neuron Axon (nerve fiber):
long, thin extension of the cell body
carries outgoing electrical signals to their destination

153. The Neuron
Figure 4–19

154. Neuroglia
Figure 4–19

155. How do injuries affect tissues of the body?

156. Tissue Injuries and Repair
Tissues respond to injuries to maintain homeostasis
Cells restore homeostasis with 2 processes:
inflammation
regeneration

157. Inflammation Inflammation: Signs of inflammatory response include:
the tissue’s first response to injury
Signs of inflammatory response include:
swelling
redness
heat
pain

158. Inflammatory Response
Can be triggered by:
trauma (physical injury)
infection (the presence of harmful pathogens)

159. The Process of Inflammation
Damaged cells release chemical signals into the surrounding interstitial fluid:
prostaglandins
proteins
potassium ions

160. The Process of Inflammation
As cells break down:
lysosomes release enzymes
that destroy the injured cell
and attack surrounding tissues
tissue destruction is called necrosis

161. The Process of Inflammation
Necrotic tissues and cellular debris (pus) accumulate in the wound:
abscess:
pus trapped in an enclosed area

162. The Process of Inflammation
Injury stimulates mast cells to release:
histamine
heparin
prostaglandins
Which dilate surrounding blood vessels

163. The Process of Inflammation
Dilation of blood vessels:
increases blood circulation in the area
causes warmth and redness
brings more nutrients and oxygen to the area
removes wastes

164. The Process of Inflammation
Plasma diffuses into the area:
causing swelling and pain
Phagocytic white blood cells:
clean up the area

165. Regeneration When the injury or infection is cleaned up:
healing (regeneration) begins

166. The Process of Regeneration
Fibroblasts move into necrotic area:
lay down collagen fibers
to bind the area together (scar tissue)

167. The Process of Regeneration
New cells migrate into area:
or are produced by mesenchymal stem cells

168. The Process of Regeneration
Not all tissues can regenerate:
epithelia and connective tissues regenerate well
cardiac cells and neurons do not regenerate

169. Summary: Inflammation and Regeneration
Figure 4–20

170. Aging and Tissue Structure
Speed and efficiency of tissue repair decreases with age, due to:
slower rate of energy consumption (metabolism)
hormonal alterations
reduced physical activity

171. Effects of Aging Chemical and structural tissue changes:
thinning epithelia and connective tissues
increased bruising and bone brittleness
joint pain and broken bones
cardiovascular disease
mental deterioration

172. Aging and Cancer Cancer rates increase with age:
1 in 4 people in the U.S. develop cancer
cancer is the #2 cause of death in the U.S.
environmental chemicals and cigarette smoke cause cancer

173. SUMMARY (1 of 14) Organization of specialized cells into tissues:
epithelial tissue
connective tissue
muscular tissue
nervous tissue

174. SUMMARY (2 of 14)
Division of epithelial tissues into epithelia and glands:
epithelia as avascular barriers for protection
glands as secretory structures

175. SUMMARY (3 of 14)
Specializations of epithelial cells for sensation or motion:
microvilli
cilia

176. SUMMARY (4 of 14)
Attachments of epithelia to other cells and underlying tissues:
polarity (apical surface and basal lamina)
cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)
cell junctions (tight junctions, gap junctions and desmosomes)

177. SUMMARY (5 of 14) Maintenance of epithelia: germinative cells
stem cells

178. SUMMARY (6 of 14) Classification of epithelial cells:
by number of cell layers (simple or stratified)
by shape of cells (squamous, columnar or cuboidal)

179. SUMMARY (7 of 14) Classification of epithelial glands:
by method of secretion (exocrine or endocrine)
by type of secretions (merocrine, apocrine, holocrine)
by organization (unicellular or multicellular)
by structure (related to branches and ducts)

180. SUMMARY (8 of 14) The functions of connective tissues: structure
transport
protection
support
connections
energy storage

181. SUMMARY (9 of 14) The structure of connective tissues: matrix
ground substance
protein fibers

182. SUMMARY (10 of 14) The classification of connective tissues:
connective tissue proper (cell types, fiber types, and embryonic connective tissues)
fluid connective tissues (blood and lymph, fluid transport systems)
supporting connective tissues (cartilage and bone)

183. SUMMARY (11 of 14)
The 4 types of membranes that cover and protect organs:
mucous membranes (lamina propria)
serous membranes (transudate)
cutaneous membrane (skin)
synovial membrane (encapsulating joints)

184. SUMMARY (12 of 14) The fasciae (superficial, deep and subserous)
The 3 types of muscle tissues (skeletal, cardiac, and smooth)
The classification of muscle tissues by striation, nucleation, and voluntary control

185. SUMMARY (13 of 14) The 2 types of cells in neural tissue:
neurons and neuroglia
The parts of a neuron (nerve cell):
cell body, dendrites, and axon (nerve fiber)

186. SUMMARY (14 of 14)
Tissue injuries and repair systems (inflammation and regeneration)
The relationship between aging, tissue structure, and cancer