1. Paradigms, Theory, And Research
Chapter 2
Paradigms, Theory, And Research

2. Traditional Model of Science
Three main elements in the traditional model of science:
Theory
Operationalization
Observation

3. Hypothesis
A specified testable expectation about empirical reality that follows from a more general proposition.
An expectation about the nature of things derived from a theory.
A statement of something that ought to be observed in the real world if the theory is correct.

4. Operationalization
Developing operational definitions or specifying the exact operations involved in measuring a variable.
Quantitative: How to agree upon measuring income in a survey
Qualitative: How to agree upon the proper countries to compare

5. Operational Definition
The concrete and specific definition of something in terms of the operations by which observations are to be categorized.
Quantitative: Party Identification will be measured on a seven-point scale
Qualitative: Only comparing other countries in Africa will be necessary

6. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Induction starts from observed data and develops a generalization which explains the relationships between the objects observed.
In deductive reasoning one starts from a general law and applies it to a particular instance.

7. Null Hypothesis
In connection with hypothesis testing and tests of statistical significance, that hypothesis that suggests there is no relationship among the variables under study.
You may conclude that the variables are related after having statistically rejected the null hypothesis.

8. FIGURE 2-3 Deductive and Inductive Methods
Both deduction and induction are legitimate and valuable approaches to understanding. Deduction begins with an expected pattern that is tested against observations, whereas induction begins with observations and seeks to find a pattern within them.

9. Research Ethics and Theory
Researchers must guard against letting their choice of theory or paradigms bias their research results.
The collective nature of social research offers protection against biased research findings.

10. Paradigms
A model or framework for observation and understanding, which shapes what we see and how we understand it.
The conflict paradigm causes us to see social behavior one way, the interactionist paradigm causes us to see it differently.
We can see new ways of seeing and explaining things when we step outside our paradigm.

11. Macrotheory
A theory aimed at understanding the “big picture” of institutions, whole societies and the interactions among societies.
Karl Marx’s examination of the class struggle is an example of macrotheory.

12. Microtheory
A theory aimed at understanding social life at the level of individuals and their interactions.
Explaining how the play behavior of girls differs from that of boys is an example of microtheory.

13. Positvism
Comte’s view that science would replace religion and metaphysics by basing knowledge on observations.
Comte coined positivism, in contrast to what he regarded as negative elements in the Enlightenment.

14. Conflict
Marx suggested social behavior could be seen as the process of conflict:
Attempt to dominate others.
Attempt to avoid domination.

15. Symbolic Interactionism
Interactions revolve around individuals reaching understanding through language and other systems.
Can lend insights into the nature of interactions in ordinary social life.

16. Ethnomethodology
People are continuously trying to make sense of the life they experience.
One technique is to break the rules and violate people’s expectations.

17. Structural Functionalism
A social entity, such as an organization, can be viewed as an organism.
A social system is made up of parts, each of which contributes to the functioning of the whole.
This view looks for the “functions” served by the various components of society.

18. Feminism
Focuses on gender differences and how they relate to the rest of social organization.
Draws attention to the oppression of women in many societies, and sheds light on all kinds of oppression.

19. Interest Convergence
The thesis that majority group members will only support the interests of minorities when those actions also support the interests of the majority group.

20. Asch Experiment
Goal was to determine whether subjects would be swayed by the pressure to go along with an incorrect answer.
Initial experiments found that a little over 1/3 of subjects were.

21. FIGURE 2-1 The Asch Experiment.
Subjects in the Asch Experiment have a seemingly easy task: to determine whether A, B, or C is the same length as X. But there’s more here than meets the eye.