1. Health and Environmental Effects of Air Pollution David Cole U.S. EPA, OAQPS Research Triangle Park, NC

2. Air Quality Management Process Implement Control Strategies Evaluate Air Quality - Air Quality Assessments Emissions Inventory Data Ambient Air Monitoring Data Choose Control Strategies -Voluntary programs / Outreach -Some strategies may be regulatory Determine Necessary Emissions Reductions Set Air Quality Goals 2

3. Titles of the Clean Air Act Title I—National Ambient Air Quality Standards, Hazardous Air Pollutants (SIP, NSR and Technology Standards) Title II—Mobile Sources Title III— Emergency Powers and Tribal Authority, Public Involvement 3

4. Titles of the Clean Air Act (cont.) Title IV—Acid Deposition Title V—Operating Permits Title VI—Stratospheric Ozone 4

5. NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) – –Primary standard set to protect public health –Secondary standard set to protect public and welfare State Implementation Plans – State plans to attain or maintain NAAQS 5

6. NAAQS (cont.) New Source Review and Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) permits part of SIPs Title V Permits take all requirements from SIPs, technology standards, New Source Performance Standards (NSPS), etc., combines in one permit 6

7. Six “Criteria Pollutants” of the NAAQS Ozone (O 3 ) Particulate matter – Coarse particles (PM 10 ) – Fine particles (PM 2.5 ) Carbon Monoxide (CO) Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) Nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) Lead (Pb) 7

8. Ground-level Ozone is… Primary component of smog Sometimes called “ bad ozone ” to distinguish from “ good ozone ” –Both types of ozone have same chemical composition (O 3 ) –“ Good ozone ” occurs naturally in upper portions of Earth ’ s atmosphere, forms layer that protects life from sun's harmful rays –“ Bad ozone ” at ground level is harmful to breathe 8

9. Not emitted directly into air Forms when emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) “ cook ” in sun –Emissions from industrial facilities, electric utilities, motor vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents are major man-made sources of NOx and VOCs Ground-level Ozone (cont.) 9

10. Mainly a summertime pollutant—sunlight and hot weather accelerate formation Ozone levels can be high in both urban and rural areas, often due to transport of ozone, or NOx and VOC emissions that form ozone Ground-level Ozone (cont.) 10

11. Ozone can penetrate deep into lungs and can –Interfere with breathing outdoors –Irritate airways, causing coughing, sore or scratchy throat, pain when breathing deeply, shortness of breath –Increase asthma attacks and use of asthma medication –Inflame and damage lung lining by injuring cells –Increase susceptibility to respiratory infection –Aggravate chronic lung diseases such as asthma, emphysema and bronchitis Ozone and Health Repeated exposure can cause permanent lung changes, long-term health effects, lower quality of life 11

12. Ozone Health Impacts: “ Pyramid of Effects ” Susceptible and vulnerable groups include –People with lung disease such as asthma –Children –Older adults –People who are more likely to be exposed, such as outdoor workers Proportion of Population Affected Severity of Effects Many scientific studies have linked ozone exposure to serious health outcomes such as emergency department visits, hospitalizations for respiratory causes, mortality 12

13. Ozone and the Environment Ground-level ozone also associated with significant environmental impacts Absorbed by leaves of plants, where it can –Visibly injure leaves, affecting appearance of vegetation in national parks, recreation areas and cities –Interfere with ability of sensitive plants to produce and store food, leading to reduced growth, biomass production and/or yields –Increase plant susceptibility to diseases, insects, harsh weather, other pollutants, and competition –Reduce or change diversity of plant species, damaging ecosystem 13

14. Particulate Matter: What is It? Particulate Matter: What is It? A complex mixture of extremely small particles and liquid droplets 14

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16. Fine Particles Combustion, gases to particles Sulfates/acids Nitrate Ammonium Organics Carbon Metals Water Sources: Coal, oil, gasoline, diesel, wood combustion Transformation of SOx, NOx, organic gases including biogenics High temperature industrial processes (smelters, steel mills) Forest fires Exposure/Lifetime: Lifetime days to weeks, regional distribution over urban scale to 1000s of km Inhalable Coarse Particles Crushing, grinding, dust Resuspended dusts (soil, street dust) Coal/oil fly ash Aluminum, silica, iron-oxides Tire and brake wear Inhalable Biological Materials (e.g., from soils, plant fragments) Sources: Resuspension of dust tracked onto roads Suspension from disturbed soil (farms, mines, unpaved roads) Construction/demolition Industrial fugitives Biological sources Exposure/Lifetime: Coarse fraction (2.5-10) lifetime of hours to days, distribution up to 100s km PM Components: fine and coarse 16

17. Larger particles (> PM 10 ) deposit in the upper respiratory tract Smaller, inhalable particles (≤ PM 10 ) penetrate deep into the lungs Both coarse PM 10 and fine PM 2.5 can penetrate to lower lung Deposited particles may accumulate, react, be cleared or absorbed Particulate Matter 17

18. Heath Effects of Particle Pollution Particles can cause both respiratory and cardio-vascular health problems, including –Aggravated asthma –Increases in respiratory symptoms like coughing and difficult or painful breathing –Chronic bronchitis –Decreased lung function –Changes in heart rate and heart rate variability –Cardiac arrhythmias –Heart attacks –Premature death Types of studies –Epidemiology/Field –Controlled human exposure –Animal 18

19. PM Health Impacts: “Pyramid of Effects” Some groups are at greater risk People with heart or lung diseases –Diseases make them vulnerable –May include people with diabetes Older adults –May have undiagnosed disease Children –Bodies still developing 19

20. Particle pollution also impairs visibility “Visibility” degree to which atmosphere is transparent to visible light Particle pollution –Degrades the visual appearance and perceived color of distant objects to an observer –Reduces range at which distant objects can be distinguished from background 20

21. Historical Perspective Historical Perspective For many years, urban visibility impairment has been the best understood effect of particulate matter London – December 1952 New York City – Thanksgiving Day 1966 Los Angeles 21

22. Urban visibility is valued across the country... 22

23. Fine particles continue to impact visibility today Chicago, < 10 ug/m 3 PM 2.5, 8/16/00Chicago, 35 ug/m 3 PM 2.5, 8/26/00 23

24. CURRENT NAAQS Primary StandardsSecondary Standards PollutantLevelAveraging TimeLevelAveraging Time Carbon Monoxide 9 ppm (10 mg/m 3 ) 8-hour None 35 ppm (40 mg/m 3 ) 1-hour Lead0.15 µg/m 3 Rolling 3-Month AverageSame as Primary Nitrogen Dioxide 100 ppb1-hourSame as Annual Primary 0.053 ppm (100 µg/m 3 ) Annual (Arithmetic Mean) Particulate Matter (PM 10 ) 150 µg/m 3 24-hourSame as Primary Particulate Matter (PM 2.5 ) 15.0 µg/m 3 Annual (Arithmetic Mean) Same as Primary 35 µg/m 3 24-hourSame as Primary Ozone0.075 ppm (2008 std)8-hourSame as Primary 0.08 ppm (1997 std)8-hourSame as Primary 0.12 ppm1-hourSame as Primary Sulfur Dioxide 75 ppb1-hour0.5 ppm (1300 µg/m 3 ) 3-hour 24

25. NAAQS Reviews: Status Update (as of March 9, 2015) OzoneLead Primary NO 2 Primary SO 2 Secondary NO 2 and SO 2 PMCO Last Review Completed (final rule signed) Mar 2008Oct 2008Jan 2010Jun 2010Mar 2012Dec 2012Aug 2011 Recent or Upcoming Major Milestone(s) 1 August 2014 Final REAs Final PA Nov 25, 2014 Proposed rule Oct 1, 2015 2 Final rule May 2014 Final PA Dec 2014 Proposed decision June 2014 Final IRP January 2015 2 nd Draft ISA Spring 2015 REA Planning Document October 2014 Final IRP Summer 2015 1 st Draft ISA Fall 2015 REA Planning Document Summer 2015 Draft IRP Winter 2015/2016 Draft IRPTBD 3 1 IRP – Integrated Review Plan; ISA – Integrated Science Assessment; REA – Risk and Exposure Assessment; PA – Policy Assessment 2 Bold and underlined dates indicate court-ordered or settlement agreement deadlines 3 TBD = to be determined Additional information regarding current and previous NAAQS reviews is available at: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/http://www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/

26. Appendix Environmental Effects of Nitrogen and Sulfur 26

27. Oxides of Nitrogen and Sulfur Acid Deposition: Combinations of NOx and/or SOx emissions react to form acidic compounds in atmosphere, deposited onto ecosystems Nutrient Enrichment: Deposited NOx can act as fertilizer where nitrogen historically limited; can cause imbalances in ecosystems Mercury methylation: Sulfur enrichment can increase mercury bioaccumulation in wildlife Climate change: Nitrous Oxide (N 2 O) is potent greenhouse gas NOx and SOx in the air can be directly toxic to plants 27

28. Sources of Nitrogen and Sulfur Burning of fossil fuels in vehicles and stationary sources Agriculture: fertilizers and livestock. Natural emissions from microbiological processes Biomass burning 28

29. Nitrogen & Sulfur Sources & Effects 29

30. Nitrogen & Sulfur Sources & Effects 30

31. Surface Water Acidification Direct effects –Decreases in pH (i.e. increases acidity) and lowers acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) –Increases Aluminum concentrations Indirect effects –watershed-scale impacts, such as nitrogen saturation, forest decline, or soil acidification 31

32. Biological Effects of Acid Rain Terrestrial –Decline of red spruce trees (eastern U.S.), sugar maple (central and western PA) –Tree decline: poor crown condition, reduced tree growth, unusually high tree mortality Aquatic –Susceptible fish and macro-invertebrates cannot survive, reproduce or compete in acidic waters (zooplankton, mayfly, fathead minnow) –High acidity and aluminum levels disrupt salt and water balance in fish, causing red blood cells to rupture and blood viscosity to increase, resulting in a lethal heart attack 32

33. Nitrogen Enrichment Atmospheric N deposition NO x, NH x, Other Nr N r effects on terrestrial ecosystems N r effects on estuarine ecosystems Fertilizer Land runoff Soil leaching (N r ) Waste water effluent (N r ) Atmospheric N deposition causes a cascade of ecological effects at multiple scales At smallest scale, increased growth of individual species Not all species can take advantage of additional N; some lose competitive advantage Causes a suite of terrestrial and aquatic ecological problems including biodiversity losses, community shifts, eutrophication, and harmful algal blooms 33

34. Ecological Indicators of Eutrophication 34