1. chapter 15
Ergogenic Aids and Sport

2. Learning Objectives
Review various substances that have been proposed to be ergogenic aids—substances or phenomena that enhance performance
Learn the importance of including control groups and placebos when studying the ergogenic properties of a substance
(continued)

3. Learning Objectives (continued)
Find out the proposed ergogenic benefits, proven effects, and risks of several pharmacological, hormonal, physiological, and nutritional agents
Discover which substances that have been considered ergogenic are actually ergolytic—that is, they impair performance

4. Ergogenic vs. Ergolytic
Ergogenic aid: any substance or phenomenon that enhances performance
Ergolytic agent: any substance or phenomenon that has detrimental effects on performance

6. Researching Ergogenic Aids
Placebo effect: An effect produced by the subject’s expectations after administration of an inactive substance (placebo)

7. The Placebo Effect on Muscular Strength Gains
Data from G. Ariel and W. Saville, 1972, "Anabolic steroids: The physiological effects of placebos," Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 4:

8. Pharmacological Agents
Sympathomimetic amines
Beta-blockers
Caffeine
Diuretics
Recreationally used drugs

9. Sympathomimetic Amines: Amphetamines
Central nervous system stimulants
Examples: ephedrine and pseudoephedrine
Proposed benefits:
Increased concentration and mental alertness (state of euphoria)
Decreased sense of mental fatigue
Enhanced athletic performance (speed, strength, fatigue resistance)

10. Proven Effects and Risks of Sympathomimetic Amines
Weight loss
Reaction time, acceleration, and speed
Strength, power, and muscular endurance
Possibly aerobic endurance
Higher maximum heart rates and peak lactate concentrations at exhaustion
Better focus
Fine motor coordination
Risks
Death
Cardiac arrhythmias
Delay the sensation of fatigue
Extreme nervousness
Aggressive behavior
Insomnia

11. Beta-Blockers
Prevent the binding of norepinephrine and decrease the effects of the sympathetic nervous system
Proposed benefits: may improve accuracy (for shooting sports), decreased anxiety
Proven effects: decrease maximum and submaximal heart rate and improve scores in shooting sports
Risks: bradycardia, heart block, hypotension, bronchospasm, hypoglycemia, fatigue, and decreased motivation

12. Caffeine CNS stimulant; effects are similar to amphetamines
Proposed benefits:
Increased mental alertness, concentration, reaction time, and energy level
Reduced fatigue
Increased mobilization and use of FFA

13. Proven Effects and Risks of Caffeine
↑ Mental alertness
↑ Concentration
Elevated mood
↓ Fatigue and delayed onset
↓ Reaction time
↑ Catecholamine release
↑ FFA mobilization
↑ Use of muscle triglycerides
Risks
Nervousness
Restlessness
Insomnia
Headache
Gastrointestinal problems
Tremors
Dehydration

14. Diuretics Increase urine production and excretion
Used for weight reduction and to mask other drugs during drug testing

15. Proven Effects and Risks of Diuretics
Significant temporary weight loss
↓ Aerobic capacity
Risks
↓ Thermoregulation
Electrolyte imbalances
Fatigue
Muscle cramping
Exhaustion
Cardiac arrhythmias
Cardiac arrest

16. Hormonal Agents
Anabolic steroids
Human growth hormone

17. Anabolic Steroids
Are nearly identical to male sex hormones; synthetic form maximizes building effects
Proposed ergogenic benefits
↑ Fat-free mass and strength
↑ Recovery from exhaustive training bouts

18. Proven Effects and Risks of Anabolic Steroids
↑ Body mass and fat-free mass
↑ Total body potassium and nitrogen
↑ Muscle size
↑ Strength
Risks
Testicular atrophy
Reduced sperm count
Prostate and breast enlargement in men
Breast regression, masculinization, and menstrual cycle disruption in women
Personality changes
Liver damage
Cardiovascular disease

19. Percent Changes in Body Size, Body Composition, and Strength When Athletes Used Anabolic Steroids and a Placebo
Adapted from G.R. Hervey et al., 1981, “Effects of methandienone on the performance and body composition of men undergoing athletic training,” Clinical Science 60:

20. Relationship Between Total Dose of Steroid and Change in Fat-Free Mass (in kg)
From an article published in Metabolism, vol. 34, G.B. Forbes, "The effect of anabolic steroids on lean body mass: The dose response curve," pp , Copyright 1985.

21. Changes in Fat-Free Mass and Quadriceps and Triceps Muscle Areas From MRI, and Changes in Strength
Reprinted, by permission, from S. Bhasin et al., 1996, “The effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on muscle size and strength in normal men,” New England Journal of Medicine 335: 1-7. Copyright © 1996 Massachusetts Medical Society. All rights reserved.

22. Human Growth Hormone
Secreted naturally by pituitary; synthetic form used by some athletes
Proposed ergogenic benefits:
Stimulation of protein synthesis in skeletal muscle
Stimulation of bone growth (if growth plates are not yet fused)
Increased insulin-like growth factor synthesis
Increased lipolysis
Increased blood glucose
Enhancement of healing after musculoskeletal injury

23. Proven Effects and Risks of Growth Hormone
(only in men > 60 years old)
↑ Fat-free mass
↓ Fat mass
↑ Bone density
Risks
Acromegaly
Cardiomyopathy
Glucose intolerance
Diabetes
Hypertension

24. Physiological Agents Blood doping Erythropoietin
Oxygen supplementation
Bicarbonate loading
Phosphate loading

25. Blood Doping
Artificial increase in total volume of red blood cells (often via transfusion)
Proposed ergogenic benefits
Improves endurance performance by increasing blood’s O2-carrying capacity
Increases VO2max, time to exhaustion, and measurable performance
Can cause blood clotting, heart failure, and transfusion complications .

26. Proven Effects and Risks of Blood Doping
↑ Maximal oxygen uptake
↑ Time to exhaustion
↑ Performance time in endurance events
Risks
↑ Blood viscosity
Blood clotting
Heart failure
Blood matching errors
Hepatitis
HIV

27. .
Changes in VO2max and Running Time to Exhaustion After Reinfusion of Red Blood Cells
Adapted, by permission, from F.J. Buick et al., 1980, "Effect of induced erythrocythemia on aerobic work capacity," Journal of Applied Physiology 48:

28. Improvements in Running Times After Reinfusion of Red Blood Cells
Adapted, by permission, from L.L. Spriet, 1991, Blood doping and oxygen transport. In Ergogenics—Enhancement of performance in exercise and sport, edited by D.R. Lamb and M.H. Williams (Dubuque, IA: Brown & Benchmark), Copyright 1991 Cooper Publishing Group, Carmel, IN.

29. Erythropoietin (EPO)
Natural hormone produced by the kidneys to stimulate red blood cell production
Human EPO can be cloned and administered to increase red blood cell volume
Proposed ergogenic benefits
Increases oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood

30. Proven Effects and Risks of EPO
↑ Hemoglobin concentration
↑ Hematocrit
↑ VO2max
↑ Treadmill time
Risks
↑ Blood viscosity
Thrombosis
Myocardial infarction
Congestive heart failure
Hypertension
Stroke
Pulmonary embolism .

31. Oxygen Supplementation
Breathed by athletes to increase oxygen content of blood
Proposed ergogenic benefits:
Compete at higher intensities
Fend off fatigue
Speed recovery between exercise bouts

32. Proven Effects and Risks of Oxygen Supplementation
Breathing O2 during the event enhances performance
↓ Peak blood lactate concentrations
Risks
No known serious risks
O2 is flammable

33. Bicarbonate
Natural part of body’s buffering system to maintain normal pH
Proposed ergogenic benefits:
↑ Blood pH, allowing higher concentrations of lactate in the blood
Delays the onset of fatigue

34. Proven Effects and Risks of Bicarbonate Loading
Ingesting 300 mg per kg body weight can increase performance in all-out exercise bouts between 1 and 7 minutes
Risks
Gastrointestinal cramping
Bloating
Diarrhea

35. Concentrations of (a) Blood Bicarbonate and (b) Blood Hydrogen Ion With and Without Ingestion of Sodium Bicarbonate
Adapted, by permission, from D.L. Costill et al., 1984, "Acid–base balance during repeated bouts of exercise: Influence of HCO3-," International Journal of Sports Medicine 5:

36. Phosphate
Loading is thought to increase phosphate levels throughout the body, improving cardiovascular and metabolic function
Proposed ergogenic benefits:
Increased potential for oxidative phosphorylation and PCr synthesis
Enhanced 2,3-diphosphoglycerate synthesis in red blood cells
Improved oxygen unloading from hemoglobin in the active muscle
Improved buffering capacity
Improved endurance capacity

37. Proven Effects and Risks of Phosphate Loading
Improvements in VO2max
↑ Time to exhaustion
Results from studies are divided
Risks
No known risks .

38. Nutritional Agents
Amino acids
L-carnitine
Creatine

39. Amino Acids
L-tryptophan and branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) including leucine, isoleucine, and valine
Proposed benefits include increasing endurance performance by delaying fatigue
Studies are inconclusive on effects on performance

40. Time to Exhaustion on a Cycle Ergometer at 70% of VO2max.
Adapted, by permission, from G. van Hall et al., 1995, "Ingestion of branched-chain amino acids and tryptophan during sustained exercise in man: Failure to affect performance," Journal of Physiology 486:

41. Creatine: ACSM Position Stand
Can increase muscle PCr content, but not in all individuals
The combination of creatine with large amounts of CHO might increase muscle uptake of creatine
Exercise performance in short periods of intense, high power output activity can be enhanced, particularly with repeated bouts
Maximal isometric strength, rate of maximal force production, and aerobic capacity are not enhanced by creatine supplementation
(continued)

42. Creatine: ACSM Position Stand (continued)
Leads to weight gain within the first few days, likely attributable to water accumulation with creatine uptake in the muscle
Combined with resistance training, creatine supplementation is associated with greater gains in strength and possibly associated with increased ability to train at higher intensities
The high expectations for performance enhancement exceed the true ergogenic benefits