1. Last Time: Gunpowder Rev (GPR) Intro of new tech/weapons Effects on battlefield, military organizations, and larger political/social order of European societies Universally recognized as a “rev” ignited and driven by new tech/weapons

2. The Napoleonic Revolution Term used to describe the military changes resulting from the French Rev (1789) and Napoleon’s reforms Differs from other revolutions in having no real technological component at all – was a revolution brought about by social and political change

3. Today and Next Time Nature of war, militaries and politics in decades before FR Course of the FR The social/political changes/legacies of FR and its impact on politics, military and warfare

4. Before the FR: Political Order Europe increasingly populated by the larger territorial states created by GR Within states, power concentrated in the hands of the central monarch Elitist (not mass) political systems based on absolutist monarchism and doctrine of the divine right of kings

5. Before the FR: Military Organizations Creation of standing armies after GPR Typical size 50-80,000 (could go as high as 300,000 for major powers in wartime) Officer corps composed largely of the nobility and upper classes (based on social status more than merit and competence) Mercenary armies (not conscripted)

6. Military Organizations (cont.) Mercenary (paid) not same as volunteer Many of soldiers are foreigners – citizenship was not required for service Frederick the Great (Prussia) had a rule that 2/3 infantry composed of foreigners Eve of FR 40% of French Army was not French Example of the Hessians (soldiers of King of Hesse) hired out to GB in Amer Rev War

7. Military Organizations (cont.) Motivation of most soldiers not loyalty or patriotism – money, escape, booze Did not pay or give rum rations….have problems Maintain order and preventing desertion were constant problems Maintain by constant supervision, control and extremely harsh discipline

8. Military Organizations (cont.) Duke of Wellington: “People talk of their enlisting from their fine military feeling – no such thing. Some of our men enlist from having bastard children – some for minor offences – many more for drink.” “ We have in the service the scum of the earth as common soldiers” Some exaggeration reflecting aristocratic prejudice, but also few grains of truth

9. War before the FR On the battlefield Very regimented, almost stylized combat learned via endless drills (not suggest is was pleasant for those involved…quite deadly in fact) Was in large part because officers did not trust soldiers – need to carefully control, supervise Rigidity, controlmania, lack of initiative

10. War Before FR (cont.) Wars tended to be relatively limited affairs – in level destruction, cost, aims Monarchs fought over things, not ideas (did not disagree about much) Wars reflected dynastic conflicts – not national conflicts

11. Obstacles to expansion of armies or goals of wars Why armies small, why wars limited Economic Logistical Socio-political

12. Economic Limits Standing armies were expensive – paid, trained, fed, housed, equipped….different from armies of pre-gunpowder era Weapons (e.g., muskets) hand made – not cheap mass production yet

13. Logistical Obstacles to Expansion Transportation: people and supplies still got around in same manner as ancient Rome – foot and horseback – slow, cumbersome and expensive (army of 80,000 might need 40,000 horses) Armies could not “live off the land” – fear of desertion

14. Logistical Obstacles (cont.) Transportation obstacles were technological in nature Communications obstacles Very large armies would need to await tech changes in means of trans and communication

15. Socio-political Obstacles Probably most important Societies were elitist absolutist monarchies – little sense of connection and loyalty between people and rulers – rules could only make limited demands on people (no conscription) and people willing to make few sacrifices

16. Social-Political Obstacles (cont.) The political order provided limits to levels of social mobilization “subjects” v. “citizens” This is where FR would start to change things

17. The French Revolution Revolution (1789) Est of the Republic (1792) Levee en Masse (1793) – national mobilization – the “Nation in Arms” Rise of Napoleon (1799) Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815)

18. FR and modern/popular nationalism Lasting significance of FR: creation of sense of loyalty/obligation/identity between people and gov/rulers Govs could expect – and people will to make – sacrifices on behalf of the state/gov

19. Alters social-political equation Most obvious result is allows for national mobilization on a massive scale 300,000 pre-Revolution 750,000 men in 1794 2,000,000 + men between 1803-1815 Largest armies the world had ever seen Less obvious than size was motivation – loyalty, patriotism (effect not only ability to get, but what can do with them once in) – citizenship not required for service

20. Creation of citizen army, a nation in arms Dramatic increase in the sheer scale of war Mid-1700s battle with 80,000 troops would have been extremely large Battle of Leipzig (1813) involved 500,000 troops (French, Austrian, Prussian, Russian, Swedish) Diff in degree so great diff in kind

21. Nations at War Not just scale, but also difference in kind – war increasingly viewed as conflict between entire nations Wars takes on ideological tone after FR in Napoleonic expansion

22. Napoleon builds on FR These social-political changes set stage for Napoleonic reforms in military organization and warfare Built on the social-political foundation of the FR – may reforms would not have been possible without

23. Organizational Reform Many I do not want to focus on – e.g., the organizations of forces into divisions and corps Increasing professionalization of the officer corps – no longer refuge for aristocratic privilege – promotion based on merit and competence

24. Organizational Reform (cont.) Before FR about 85% officers from aristocracy – by 1800 3% Social elitist basis of military organizations eroded further by FR and Napoleon Military become a meritocracy, not an aristocracy

25. On the battlefield An army of loyal citizen soldiers provided new options Some logistic problems solved by “living off the land” – made possible because of loyalty (still problems of transport and communication – sometimes too big for their own good)

26. On the battlefield (cont.) Without the needs for constant supervision (i.e., controlmania) you has much more tactical flexibility Greater dispersion Greater independence Greater flexibility Move away from rigid/regimented style of battle

27. Other obstacles remain Before FR armies small, wars limited, and fighting regimented FR removed the political/social obstacles to the expansion of war Tech and logistical obstacles would need to wait for the IR….to which we will turn our attention next time