2. What is a text? Write a brief definition of what a text is.

3. Qeworqoiutiqv oiqn uiuw9v590q38c9r0eroinbtpu09c9 we mf9en 8 b3bq4i09 Is this a text?

4. IzDIs@tekst O:nQt

5. What do the images on the following slides represent? Decide whether they constitute a text or not. Justify your answer.

14. “Text can be used for both written and spoken language. It usually refers to a stretch, an extract or complete piece of writing or speech. Texts generally adhere to broad conventions and rules which determine the language and structure used in particular text types.” Cornbleet and Carter The Language of Speech and Writing (2001, p 3)

15. Text and sentences Are all texts organised in sentences? Are sentences necessary for a stretch of language to be considered a text? What kinds of text are organised in sentences?

16. Spoken texts What kinds of spoken texts make use of grammatical sentences? What kinds of spoken texts do not make use of grammatical sentences? What kinds of rules govern spoken text, in particular conversation?

17. Spoken texts “speech is characteristically used in pursuit of a purpose… The practice of inventing a sentence… is a practice of the sentence grammarian, not the user’ Brazil, A Grammar of Speech,1995, pp 26-7

18. Analysing spoken texts “spoken discourse should not be judged using the rules of written English: terms such as ‘word’, ‘sentence’ and ‘paragraph’ … come from the study of writing.” Carter et al., Working with Texts, 1997 p 243 Spoken texts are governed by the social context which determines the shape of the discourse nad the language used.

19. Spoken language Context – speakers, relationship, gender, status, background Setting – where, when, visual contact, gesture (paralanguage) Pragmatics – shared knowledge, conventions, turntaking, (purpose) Prosodics – intonation, stress, tone, emotion, etc,. degree of formality (connected speech) Incompleteness – (not always – depends on text) overlapping, interruption, hesitation, incoherence, incomplete utterance, false starts, etc.

20. Purpose Persuade Instruct or advise Entertain Inform Threaten Request or invite Social function Promise Mixed

21. What is the purpose of the following texts? Bus ticket List of jobs to do around the house An employment contract “c u l8r @ skul” Birthday card “Nokia – Connecting people” “My other car’s a Porsche” (sticker in the back of an old banger) Cat needs feeding (note left on kitchen table)

22. Primary and secondary purposes: written and spoken texts Depends on context and setting Target/audience/readership Perceptions of interlocuter/reader (nearly all texts have an informative function)

23. Planning Which kinds of text involve most planning? Are spoken texts ever planned? What things are taken into account when planning a text?

24. Jobs to do As there has been a lot of rain just recently along with a rise in temperatures it would be advisable if you found enough time to weed the vegetable patch, if not the carrots and the lettuce will be choked and we will not have any produce later on in the year. I have been very busy recently and therefore have not found time to hoover the bedrooms for at least two weeks. Rather than go for a walk on Saturday afternoon I think I should stay at home and remedy this situation.

25. Features involved in planning Target (also multiple) Setting (incl. register) Time spent Medium used Longevity Conformity Pre-existing ‘scripts’ (conscious and subconscious planning) Use of lexical phrases/set phrases Complexity of syntax Style

26. The best laid plans… Perceptions of interlocuter/reader Power roles (in spoken texts) unintended direction

27. Language and situation occur together

28. Context What are the main kinds of contexts? How do they differ from each other? What implications does the context have on the kind of language used?

29. How would the following interlocuters express their need to urinate? Toddler to mother Student to teacher Male teenager to male friend Female teenager to female friend Female teenager to male friend Adult woman to male colleague Lawyer to judge regarding the defendant

30. How would the following interlocuters express the fact someone had died? Mother to toddler Student to teacher Male teenager to male friend Female teenager to female friend Female teenager to male friend Adult woman to male colleague Lawyer to judge in murder case Newspaper death column

31. Context Public vs private Participants (degree of Medium Expectations Level of personal reference Style (from euphemism to dysphemism) Repertoire of scripts Ritualised language Loaded language

32. Formal vs Informal Literary and Non-literary What makes a text formal? What makes a text informal? Do formal texts only use formal language? What is a literary text? Are literary texts formal or informal?

33. Planning and Purpose Context and Audience Formal and Informal