1. UNIT-2 Dr. A. Mohamed Riyazh Khan DoMS, SNS. College of Engg.

2. Law of Demand Meaning: Law of demand the relationship between change in quantity demanded and change in price. it states that higher the price, the lower would be the quantity demanded and vice versa. According to Benham: “The demand for anything, at a given price, is the amount of it, which will be bought per unit of time, at that price.” Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

3. Assumption  1. Income level should remain constant  2. Taste of the buyer should not change  3. Prices of other goods should remain constant  4. No new substitutes for the commodity  5. price rise in future should not be expected Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

4. Demand Curve The demand curve has a negative slope, consistent with the law of demand. Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

5. Why does Demand curve slope downwards?  It implies inverse relationship between demand and price of a commodity. Causes: 1. Substitution Effect: 2. Income Effect 3. New consumer creating demand 4. Based on the law of diminishing marginal utility 5. Price effect Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

6. Determinants of demand/factors affecting demand  Income of consumers- As income increases, people increases car purchases.  Population/Size of the market – A growth in population increases car purchases.  Price & availability of related goods- Lower LPG prices raise the demand for cars.  Taste & preference of consumers – Having a new car becomes the status symbol  Special influences – Availability of alternative forms of transportation, safety of mobility, expectation of future price increases…etc… Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

7. Elasticity of Demand  An elasticity demand is one in which the change in quantity demanded due to change in price is large.  Types of Elasticity of Demand 1. Price elasticity of demand 2. Income elasticity of demand 3. Cross elasticity of demand 4. Advertising @ promotional elasticity of demand. Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

8. Price elasticity of demand Price elasticity of demand is a measure of how much the quantity demanded of a good responds to a change in the price of that good. Price elasticity of demand is the percentage change in quantity demanded given a percent change in the price. (Ep) Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

10. Types  Perfectly Elastic  Perfectly inelastic  Unitary elastic  Elastic demand  Inelastic demand Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

11. Perfectly elastic demand  Perfectly Elastic (Ep=∞)  Quantity demanded changes infinitely with any change in price.  Very small change in price will result in infinitely large response in demand  A small rise in price may result in contraction of demand even to zero and a small fall in rise may result in extension of demand to infinity  Demand curve D1D1 is a horizontal straight line showing that at price OP the amount demanded is infinity Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

12. Perfectly elastic Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

13. Perfectly Inelastic demand  Perfectly Inelastic (Ep=0)  Quantity demanded does not respond to price changes.  A large fall in price or rise in price will not induce the consumer to change in the quantity demanded  Demand curve D2D2 shows a fixed quantity will be purchased whatever changes takes place in price Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

14. Perfectly inelastic Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

15. Relatively elastic demand  Elastic Demand (Ep>1)  Quantity demanded responds strongly to changes in price.  Where a small change in price will lead to a very big change in the quantity demanded  Price elasticity of demand is greater than one.  The curve D3D3 is flatter showing that quantities demanded are larger than change in price  When the price falls from P to P1 the demand increased form Q to Q1 which is comparatively larger than fall in price. So the demand is relatively elastic. Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

16. Relatively elastic Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

17. Relatively inelastic  Inelastic Demand (Ep<1)  Quantity demanded does not respond strongly to price changes.  Price elasticity of demand is less than one.  It refers to a condition where a large change in price will result in smaller change in quantity demanded  D4D4 is a steeper curve showing a steep fall in price leads to a little change in qty demanded  When price falls from P to P1 the qty demanded is increased from Q to Q1 which is comparatively lower than fall in price Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

18. Relatively inelastic Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

19. Unitary elastic  Unit Elastic (Ep=1)  Quantity demanded changes by the same percentage as the price.  The demand curve D5D5 slopes uniformly shows that PP1+QQ1. i.e. change in price has created an equal change in quantity demanded Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

20. Unitary elastic Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

21. Income Elasticity  Income elasticity of demand measures how much the quantity demanded of a good responds to a change in consumers’ income.  It is computed as the percentage change in the quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in income.  The relationship between changes in income of the consumer and the consequent changes in the quantity demanded is expressed through the concept of income elasticity of demand Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

23. Types  1. High-income Elasticity: When the quantity demanded of good increased by a larger percentage as compared with the income of the consumer.  2. Unitary Income Elasticity: When the percentage change in quantity demanded is equal to the percentage change in income.  3. Low-income Elasticity: When the quantity demanded of good increased by a smaller percentage as compared with the income of consumer.  4. Zero income Elasticity: When the quantity demanded of a good remains unchanged upon the change of income, income elasticity of demand is zero.  5. Negative income Elasticity: When the quantity demanded of a good falls in response to an increase in income, the income elasticity of demand is negative. Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

24. Cross Elasticity of Demand  It tells us the extent of change in the quantity demanded of a commodity A due to change in the price of another commodity B which may either be substitute of A or complimentary of A  Ec= % change in demand for commodity A % change in price of commodity B Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

25. The Law of Supply  The law of supply holds that other things equal, as the price of a good rises, its quantity supplied will rise, and vice versa.  Why do producers produce more output when prices rise?  They seek higher profits  They can cover higher marginal costs of production Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

26. Supply Curve The supply curve has a positive slope, consistent with the law of supply. Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

27. Determinants of supply 1. Price of the good. 2. Prices of related goods. 3. Prices of factors of production. 4. Producers objectives. 5. Technological know how’s. 6. Cartels (group of business controlling mkt) 7. To raise price – supply may be destroyed. 8. Taxation on output. 9. Political disturbances. 10. Time period. Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

28. Equilibrium Equilibrium occurs at a price of $3 and a quantity of 30 units. Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

29. Consumer behaviour  CB is the study of When, Why, How and Where people do or do not buy product.  It attempts to understand the buyer decision-making process both individually and in groups. Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

30. Consumer Equilibrium  It is a situation in which a costumer is getting maximum satisfaction and he has no tendency to change his pattern of consumption. The term consumer’s equilibrium refers to the amount of goods and services which the consumer may buy in the market given his income and given prices of goods in the market. Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

31.  The aim of the consumers to get maximum satisfaction from his money income.  Given the price line (budget line) and the indifference map, a consumer is said to be in equilibrium at a point where the price line is touching the highest attainable indifference curve from below. Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

32. Assumption  1.There are two goods i.e commodity X and commodity Y.  2.The consumer’s preference scale for combination of two goods is exhibited by indifference map.  3.The prices of goods are given and remain constant.  4.The consumer has a given income which sets to limits to his maximizing behavior. Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

35.  Above diagram explain the process of consumer’s equilibrium.  The consumer’s preference scale is described by means of indifference mapping.  Then we impose a budget line that reflects our income. In this case we have r 50 and the price of good X and good Y is r 10 and r 5 respectively. Therefore, we can afford only those combinations that are on or inside the price line GH.  In this diagram every combination on the price line GH cost you the same amount of money. In order to maximize the utility, we will try to reach the highest indifference curve which you could get with a given expenditure of money and given prices of two goods. Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

36.  The budget line touches IC2 at point E represents the most utility.  This is the highest attainable indifference curve with which you can get OQ1 units of good X and OQ2 units of good Y for r 50.  Any other affordable combinations on the price line GH gives you less satisfaction, because that will be on a lower indifference curve IC1.  With this we conclude that the point of tangency between the budget line and an indifference curve represents optimal consumption. It is the affordable combination that maximize our utility. Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

37.  the marginal rate of substitution is the rate at which a consumer is ready to give up one good in exchange for another good while maintaining the same level of utility.  At the tangency point E the slope of the price line GH and indifference curve are equal. Slope of the indifference curve shows the marginal rate of substitution of X for Y.  The price line indicates the ratio between the prices of two goods (PX/PY). Thus at the equilibrium point E,MRSXY=Price of good x/Price of good y= PX/PY Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

38.  1.A given budget line must be tangent to an indifference curve, or the marginal rate of substitution between commodity X and commodity Y (MRS x,y ) must be equal to the price ratio between the two goods.  2.At the point of equilibrium, indifference curve must be convex to the origin. Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

39. Indifferent Curves  An indifference curve which represent different combination of two goods which give a consumer equal level of satisfaction. Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

40. Marginal Rate of Substitution  It is the quantity of one good that must be given up as the consumption of the other good increase by one unit and total utility remains constant.  The consumer can substitute one good another without changing the level of satisfaction. It determines the slope of indifferent curves.   Change in the consumption of one good  MRS= ———————————————  Change in the consumption of another good Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

41. Return to Scale  In long-run all inputs are variable. Production can increased by changing one or more of the inputs. In long-run, it is possible for to change all inputs up or down.  This is known as return to scale.  Assumption:  1. All factors are variable but industry is static (fixed).  2. there is perfect competition.  3. the production is measured by quantity. Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

42.  Types:  1. Increasing  2. Constant  3. Diminishing Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

43. Factor Combinations (Quintals) Total productMarginal Product 1212 2626 2 4 Increasing return 345345 12 18 24 6 6 Constant Return 6767 28 30 4 2 Diminishing return Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

44.  Increasing: The factor of production fixed and the scale is expanded. The output increases in a greater proportion than the increase in the factor of production. Constant: the increase in the total output is in exact proportion to the increase in inputs. The total return will increase in such a way that the marginal returns become constant. Diminishing: the proportion of the factor remains unchanged, output increase in a smaller proportion as compared to increases in the amounts of the factor of production. Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

45. Short-run production function  In the short-run, the technical conditions of production are inflexible. The variables are fixed position.  Assumption:  1. only one factor is variable while others are held constant.  2. variable factors are homogeneous.  3. it assume to short-run situation.  No change in technology factor. Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

46. Relationship between Average product/ Marginal product  Total Product: it is the total output resulting from the efforts of all the factors of production combined together.  Average Product: it is the total product per unit of the variable factor. When one unit of labour is employed, average product, are 100, when two units of labour are employed, average product rises to 105.  Marginal Product: MR is the change in total product per unit in the quantity of variable factor. In addition made to the total production by an additional unit of input.  Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

47. Quantity of labourTotal Product (TP)Average Product (AP)Marginal Product (MP) 1100 2210105110 3330110120 4430107.5+100 552010490 660010080 767095.770 87209050 975083.330 107607610 1174067.2-20 Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

48. Economies and Diseconomies  Economies of scale are advantage that arise due to large-scale production. It refer to the concept of increasing efficiency of the production of goods as the number of good being produced increased.  Economies of scale is a long-run concept and refers to reductions in unit cost (Average cost)as the size of a facility and the usage levels of other inputs increase. Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

49.  According to Porter, Economies of scale is the “decline in the unit’s cost of production”. ………………………………………………..  Diseconomies:  When a firm to expand its size, a stage comes when diminishing return to scale set in. as a firm expand beyond a level, it shows diseconomies. Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS

51. Cost Function  In cost function the dependent variable is unit cost or total cost and the independent variables are the prices of a factor, the size of the output. C= f(O,S,T,U,P….) C-COST, O- Level of output, S-size of plant, T-Time, P-Prices of factor of production Dr. Mohamed Riyazh Khan - SNS, DoMS