1. Chapter Six Foundation Concepts of Motivation

2. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited2 Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Describe several need theories of motivation, including the needs hierarchy, the two-factor theory, and the achievement-power- affiliation triad. 2. Summarize the key propositions of goal theory and reinforcement theory. 3. Explain the expectancy theory of motivation.

3. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited3 Objectives (cont.) 4. Explain how equity and social comparison contribute to motivation. 5. Use social learning theory to motivate yourself. 6. Recognize the importance of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. 7. Explain how personality factors are related to motivation.

4. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited4 Motivation The process by which behaviour is mobilized and sustained in the interest of achieving organizational goals The process by which behaviour is mobilized and sustained in the interest of achieving organizational goals

5. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited5 Need Theories of Motivation All believe driving force in motivation is desire to satisfy important unmet needs All believe driving force in motivation is desire to satisfy important unmet needs Include: Include: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory McClelland’s Achievement-Power-Affiliation Triad McClelland’s Achievement-Power-Affiliation Triad

6. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited6 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

7. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited7 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Pyramid model outlines basic needs in order of importance Pyramid model outlines basic needs in order of importance Physiological: water, air, food, sleep Physiological: water, air, food, sleep Safety: security, freedom from threat Safety: security, freedom from threat Social and love: affiliation, sex, belonging to group Social and love: affiliation, sex, belonging to group Esteem: self-respect, recognition, appreciation… Esteem: self-respect, recognition, appreciation… Self-actualization: self-fulfillment, personal development Self-actualization: self-fulfillment, personal development Lowest level of unfulfilled needs are most compelling; as needs are satisfied, they lose their strength and the next level up is activated Lowest level of unfulfilled needs are most compelling; as needs are satisfied, they lose their strength and the next level up is activated

8. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited8 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Two sets of factors critical: Two sets of factors critical: Motivators (intrinsic factors) Motivators (intrinsic factors) Job content factors like responsibility, achievement, the job itself, growth opportunities Job content factors like responsibility, achievement, the job itself, growth opportunities Motivational because make a job exciting Motivational because make a job exciting Hygiene factors (extrinsic) Hygiene factors (extrinsic) Job context factors like working conditions, quality of supervision, benefits, security, coworkers Job context factors like working conditions, quality of supervision, benefits, security, coworkers Important as they prevent dissatisfaction Important as they prevent dissatisfaction Not motivational Not motivational

9. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited9 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (cont.) Focuses interest on job design as influence on motivation Focuses interest on job design as influence on motivation Helps recognition that pay is not always primary motivator Helps recognition that pay is not always primary motivator But de-emphasizes individual differences and underestimates importance of hygiene factors in attracting and retaining workers But de-emphasizes individual differences and underestimates importance of hygiene factors in attracting and retaining workers

10. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited10 McClelland’s Achievement-Power- Affiliation Triad Focused on three needs acquired from one’s culture: Focused on three needs acquired from one’s culture: Need for achievement Need for achievement Need for power Need for power Need for affiliation Need for affiliation Measured through Thematic Apperception Test Measured through Thematic Apperception Test

11. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited11 Need for Achievement Desire to accomplish something difficult for its own sake Desire to accomplish something difficult for its own sake People high in this need: People high in this need: Seek responsibility Seek responsibility Set realistic but moderately difficult goals Set realistic but moderately difficult goals Take calculated risks Take calculated risks Desire feedback Desire feedback

12. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited12 Need for Power Desire to control other people, influence their behaviour, be responsible for them Desire to control other people, influence their behaviour, be responsible for them People high on this need: People high on this need: Spend time thinking about influencing others Spend time thinking about influencing others Wish to gain a position of status and authority Wish to gain a position of status and authority Want to have a positive impact Want to have a positive impact

13. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited13 Need for Affiliation Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relationships with others Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relationships with others People high in this need: People high in this need: Care about restoring disrupted relationships and soothing hurt feelings Care about restoring disrupted relationships and soothing hurt feelings Want to engage in work that permits close companionship Want to engage in work that permits close companionship

14. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited14 McClelland’s Needs: Research Results Need profile of successful managers : Need profile of successful managers : Primary motivator is need for power Primary motivator is need for power Low need for affiliation Low need for affiliation Entrepreneurs have high need for achievement Entrepreneurs have high need for achievement

15. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited15 Goal Theory Individuals provided with specific hard goals perform better than those given easy, nonspecific, or “do your best” goals, or no goals. Individuals provided with specific hard goals perform better than those given easy, nonspecific, or “do your best” goals, or no goals. Supported by research. Supported by research. Success also dependent on sufficient ability, acceptance of goals, and receiving relevant feedback Success also dependent on sufficient ability, acceptance of goals, and receiving relevant feedback

16. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited16 Goal-setting Theory

17. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited17 Locke & Latham’s Findings regarding Goal Setting 1. Specific goals lead to higher performance than do generalized goals. 2. Performance generally increases in direct proportion to goal difficulty. 3. For goals to improve performance, workers must accept them 4. Goals are more effective when they are used to evaluate performance. 5. Goals should be linked to feedback and rewards. 6. A learning goal orientation improves performance more than a performance goal orientation. 7. Group goal setting is as important as individual goal setting.

18. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited18 Reinforcement Theory (based on operant conditioning) Behaviour is determined by its consequences. Behaviour is determined by its consequences. Increase frequency of performance using: Increase frequency of performance using: Positive reinforcement Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Negative reinforcement Decrease frequency of performance using: Decrease frequency of performance using: Punishment Punishment Extinction Extinction

19. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited19 Techniques in Operant Conditioning Positive reinforcement Positive reinforcement Provide pleasurable or valued consequence after desired response Provide pleasurable or valued consequence after desired response Negative reinforcement (avoidance motivation) Negative reinforcement (avoidance motivation) Remove or withhold unpleasant consequence after desired response Remove or withhold unpleasant consequence after desired response Punishment Punishment Provide unpleasant consequence Provide unpleasant consequence Extinction Extinction Absence of reward that had been sustaining behaviour (e.g., attention) Absence of reward that had been sustaining behaviour (e.g., attention)

20. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited20 Expectancy Theory of Motivation Motivation results from deliberate choices to engage in activities in order to achieve worthwhile outcomes. Motivation results from deliberate choices to engage in activities in order to achieve worthwhile outcomes. People will be motivated if they believe strong effort will lead to good performance and good performance will lead to good outcomes. People will be motivated if they believe strong effort will lead to good performance and good performance will lead to good outcomes.

21. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited21 Expectancy Theory – Key Concepts Effort-to-Performance (E  P) Expectancy Effort-to-Performance (E  P) Expectancy A subjective estimate of the probability that increased effort will lead to the desired performance. A subjective estimate of the probability that increased effort will lead to the desired performance. Instrumentality (P  O) Instrumentality (P  O) An individual’s estimate of the probability that increased performance will lead to desired outcomes. An individual’s estimate of the probability that increased performance will lead to desired outcomes. Valence Valence The value a person places on a particular outcome. The value a person places on a particular outcome.

22. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited22 A Basic Version of Expectancy Theory

23. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited23 Expectancy Theory: The Calculation of Motivation M = (E  P) x (P  O) x V M = (E  P) x (P  O) x V Example (from textbook): Valence=100(scale: -100 to +100) E  P= x.85(scale: 0 to 1.00) P  O= x.90(scale: 0 to 1.00) Valence=100(scale: -100 to +100) E  P= x.85(scale: 0 to 1.00) P  O= x.90(scale: 0 to 1.00) Motivation=76.50(scale: -100 to +100) Motivation=76.50(scale: -100 to +100)

24. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited24 Using Expectancy Theory To create a situation of high motivation, manager should take steps to: To create a situation of high motivation, manager should take steps to: elevate expectancies (e.g., ensure training) elevate expectancies (e.g., ensure training) elevate instrumentalities (e.g., recognize good performance) elevate instrumentalities (e.g., recognize good performance) elevate valences (e.g., choose rewards meaningful to individual) elevate valences (e.g., choose rewards meaningful to individual)

25. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited25 Expectancy Theory Research shows positive affect increases expectancies, instrumentalities and valences (so good mood helps) Research shows positive affect increases expectancies, instrumentalities and valences (so good mood helps) Cross-cultural application complicated – cultures differ in belief in control over outcomes of their efforts and faith in leaders to deliver rewards Cross-cultural application complicated – cultures differ in belief in control over outcomes of their efforts and faith in leaders to deliver rewards

26. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited26 Equity Theory and Social Comparison Employee satisfaction and motivation depend on how fairly employees believe they are being treated in comparison to peers Employee satisfaction and motivation depend on how fairly employees believe they are being treated in comparison to peers Outcomes (me) compared to Outcomes (other) Input (me) Input (other) Where inputs include skills, experience, effort… and outcomes include pay, status, recognition… Where inputs include skills, experience, effort… and outcomes include pay, status, recognition…

27. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited27 Employee Ways of Dealing with Perceived Inequity Alter the outcome (ask for more money). Alter the outcome (ask for more money). Alter the inputs (decrease efforts). Alter the inputs (decrease efforts). Distort the perception (engage in self- justification and seek to discredit others). Distort the perception (engage in self- justification and seek to discredit others). Change the reference source (find another person with a similar outcome/input ratio). Change the reference source (find another person with a similar outcome/input ratio). Leave the situation (quit to pursue a more equitable position). Leave the situation (quit to pursue a more equitable position).

28. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited28 Social Learning Theory Social learning is the process of observing others’ behaviours, recognizing consequences, and altering behaviour as a result. This motivated imitation is more likely if: Social learning is the process of observing others’ behaviours, recognizing consequences, and altering behaviour as a result. This motivated imitation is more likely if: Learner has high expectancies & instrumentalities Learner has high expectancies & instrumentalities Learner can self-administer rewards (finds the task intrinsically satisfying) Learner can self-administer rewards (finds the task intrinsically satisfying) The behaviour to be learned is tangible/observable The behaviour to be learned is tangible/observable Learner has the needed physical & mental abilities Learner has the needed physical & mental abilities

29. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited29 Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic motivation means motivating people through interesting work Intrinsic motivation means motivating people through interesting work Challenge, autonomy are characteristics likely to satisfy needs for competence & self-determination Challenge, autonomy are characteristics likely to satisfy needs for competence & self-determination Intrinsic motivation also influenced by perception of why performing task (for self rather than external reward) Intrinsic motivation also influenced by perception of why performing task (for self rather than external reward)

30. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited30 Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic motivation theory emphasizes problems with extrinsic rewards: Intrinsic motivation theory emphasizes problems with extrinsic rewards: Can lower performance and demotivate when creative task involved Can lower performance and demotivate when creative task involved Can focus too narrowly on a task Can focus too narrowly on a task Can rush through task to get reward Can rush through task to get reward Can cause task to be seen as drudgery suffered for reward Can cause task to be seen as drudgery suffered for reward Can see selves as less free and self-determining Can see selves as less free and self-determining

31. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited31 Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation Need to balance intrinsic and extrinsic rewards Need to balance intrinsic and extrinsic rewards Even those who love their work expect fair pay and recognition Even those who love their work expect fair pay and recognition

32. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited32 Influence of Personality on Motivation Personality traits that predispose persons to motivation: Personality traits that predispose persons to motivation: Conscientiousness Conscientiousness A conscientious person will strive to get the job done. A conscientious person will strive to get the job done. Achievement need Achievement need A need that usually functions like a personality trait—the achievement-driven person welcomes accomplishing tasks. A need that usually functions like a personality trait—the achievement-driven person welcomes accomplishing tasks. Employees with low conscientiousness scores, and weak achievement needs are difficult to motivate. Employees with low conscientiousness scores, and weak achievement needs are difficult to motivate.

33. Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited33 Influence of Personality – research with telemarketers Communion striving Communion striving Actions directed toward being accepted in personal relationships and getting along with coworkers. Actions directed toward being accepted in personal relationships and getting along with coworkers. Status striving Status striving Actions directed toward obtaining power and dominance within a status hierarchy, such as a business firm. Actions directed toward obtaining power and dominance within a status hierarchy, such as a business firm. Accomplishment striving Accomplishment striving Reflects an individual’s intention to accomplish tasks, as included in most definitions of work motivation Reflects an individual’s intention to accomplish tasks, as included in most definitions of work motivation Research showed latter two correlated with sales performance, as did conscientiousness and extraversion. Research showed latter two correlated with sales performance, as did conscientiousness and extraversion.