1. Aurangzeb (Alamgir), 1658/9-1707

2. Factions in Shah Jahan’s Court
(switches sides
To Shuja)

3. Succession Struggle of 1658
Dara Shukoh
Murad Baksh
Mhmd. Shuja
Aurangzeb

4. The War of Succession
Aurangzeb moves north, keeping track of changes at court via Princess Raushan Ara
Murad forcibly takes treasury in West, agrees to a compact with Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb and Murad’s forces defeat the Imperial Army under Jaswant Singh Rathor, Feb, 1658—Same month Sulaiman Shukoh defeats the Bengal army of Shuja
By June, Aurangzeb triumphs over brothers.

5. Wrapping up “loose ends”
Jaswant Singh Rathor defects to Shuja, who had retreated east. Both are defeated, but Shuja will continue to resist till 1660 in the east.
Murad Baksh taken prisoner in June, 1658, will be tried for murder, ex. In 1661.
Dara captured in summer of 1659, put on trial for apostasy and idolatry, executed.

6. Impact of Succession Struggle, 1658-59
Nobility picked different sides—Aurangzeb continued to hold suspicions about Jaswant Singh and supporters of Dara—such as the Sikh Guru, Har Rai
Much disruption in the collection of revenue for two years—possible impact on peasants a cause of debate
Imperial wealth spent ends up in hands of peasants and soldiers
Continued imprisonment of Shah Jahan leads to criticism by Safavid Emperor and the guardian of Mecca. Allegations made about Aurangzeb’s morality.
Allies and nobility view new emperor with trepidation

7. The polarization of history
Aurangzeb’s period has become polarized and mythologized
Some myths:
Banned music, painting, etc at court
Actively discriminated against all non-Muslims
Tried to create an Islamic theocracy

8. Same cautionary remarks:
Important to view Aurangzeb’s policies as rising out of complex motivations and factors, not merely due to his personality
Sources from secondary literature (particularly older ones) are highly suspect, since 19th-20th c. was marked by Hindu-Muslim tensions
Crucial to see the changes in policy since the Emperor’s own attitudes towards Rajputs, Marathas, conversion, jizya changed over time
An important dividing factor is the earlier part of the reign spent in the north v. later reign in Deccan (before and after 1681) retrenchment after 1681.

9. Early Campaigns,
Mir Jumla’s campaign against Kuch Bihar and Ahoms
Afghan tribes rebel: Afridis, Yusufzai, Khataks
rebellion in Mewar and Marwar
1681 Prince Akbar’s rebellion
Continuing trouble with Marathas forces Aurganzeb to leave for the Deccan

10. Afghan revolts contained
Incentives offered
Pay tribute, but
Not annexed
Ongoing
Rebellion
From 1650s on
For Marathas,
After 1678 for
Rajputs
Eastern Border
secured

11. Important shifts in Religious Policy
1659 office of Muhtasib created
1665 differential taxes for Hindu and Muslim traders imposed, but only sporadically enforced
1669 official histories discontinued, order for temples clarified
1672 Hindu religious grants resumed
1675 Sikh Guru, Tegh Bahadur executed
1679 Jizya reimposed (revoked in 1704/deccan)
1690 land grants to Muslim ulema made heriditary

12. Problems of Enforcement
Aurangzeb’s own application of these laws was inconsistent—ex. Support of non-muslim religious establishments/figures
Mansabdars flooded the Emperor with protests, applications for the reduction/revocation of taxes or simply did not comply in some areas
Jizya was revoked in the Deccan in 1704
Aurangzeb’s personal bigotry is undeniable; however, his policy shifts also seem to be in response to key events at times

13. Rajputs and Aurangzeb
Some of the contradictions in these policies is clearer in the case of the Rajputs
Jaswant Singh’s conduct in and later as an ally of Shivaji put him under suspicion
Rajput officers were exempted from the Jizya
Aurangzeb continued to patronize and support other Rajputs during the war with Mewar/Marwar. Raja Jai Singh was entrusted with the Deccan Campaign until 1666.

14. The Marwar-Mewar Rebellion
Has longer subtext—Jaswant Singh was a younger son who gained the throne of Marwar due to Shah Jahan’s patronage
His behavior during aroused Aurangzeb’s suspicions, upon his death in 1678, Aurangzeb tried to manipulate succession and failed.
The Marwar and Mewar clans rallied around the infant Ajit Singh, guerilla warfare begins
Mughal army subdues urban areas, dynastic temples are destroyed, tensions are aggravated
Prince Akbar joins Rajputs, criticizes policies
Rebellion contained, but trust of two major clans broken

15. Pressure from Marathas
The Emperor’s growing frustrations with the Maratha insurgency had an impact on both administrative and religious policies
During suc. Struggle of Shivaji and allies capture forts on the Konkan coast
Raid Deccani and Mughal territory demanding revenue
1664 Shivaji raids Surat
Captured by Jai Singh in 1665, escapes in 1666
1667 raids Surat again
1680 Shivaji dies, sons and wives fight over succession

17. Maratha Advantages
Clan-based confederacy, with tight links to local peasants, Bijapur
Bases in remote fortresses in Western Ghat hills
Use guerilla tactics, not conventional warfare
Use money from raids and piracy to create revenue

18. How are we to assess this early period?
Keep in mind that despite dramatic political events the revenue system in fact continued to expand and be reformed under Aurangzeb
Greater urban expansion necessitated a change in taxation and administrative systems—merchants had been lightly taxed till now
Despite battles the bulk of the peasantry—especially khud kasht peasants and pioneering zamindars continued to profit from economic expansion
Their success, in fact, was both beneficial and problematic for the empire—Why?
Emperor needed greater cooperation from administrative officials to capitalize on these expansions—yet ran into political problems due to clumsy policies

19. How did Aurangzeb fail to build support?
It is not clear if Aurangzeb always understood the complicated power-sharing between Hindus and Muslims
Bijapur Sultanate and Marathas
Arrangement between Hindu financiers and Muslim pioneer farmers in Bengal, an example also found elsewhere
Attitudes of a mixed nobility towards an increasingly hybridized culture
Reactions to Imperial policy were unexpected—many Muslim mansabdars critical of these shifts
Hindus continue to join system, largest numbers by end of Aurangzeb’s rule