1. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Chapter 12 The Blood

2. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Circulating Blood Important in maintaining homeostasis Classed as connective tissue Accounts for 8% of total body weight

3. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Functions of the Blood Circulating blood serves body in three ways –Transportation –Regulation –Protection

4. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Transportation Blood –Carries oxygen to tissues –Carries carbon dioxide from tissues –Transports nutrients and other substances to cells –Transports waste products from cells –Carries hormones to organs

5. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Regulation Blood –Buffers keep pH of body fluids between 7.35 and 7.45 –Substances maintain osmotic pressure to regulate fluid in tissues –Transports heat to aid in regulation of body temperature

6. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Protection Blood –Carries cells and antibodies of immune system –Carries factors to protect against blood loss

7. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Checkpoint 12-1: What are some of the substances transported in the blood? –Oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, electrolytes, vitamins, hormones, urea, and toxins Checkpoint 12-2: What is the pH range of the blood? –7.35 – 7.45

8. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Blood Constituents Plasma –Liquid portion Formed elements –Erythrocytes –Leukocytes –Platelets (thrombocytes)

9. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Composition of whole blood

10. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Checkpoint 12-3: What are the two main components of blood? –Plasma –Formed elements

11. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Blood Plasma Plasma is 55% of blood –91% water –8% protein Albumin Clotting factors Antibodies Complement 1% other materials –Glucose –Amino acids –Lipids –Electrolytes –Vitamins –Hormones –Wastes –Drugs –Dissolved gases

12. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Checkpoint 12-4: Next to water, what is the most abundant type of substance in plasma? –Protein

13. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins The Formed Elements Produced in red bone marrow Hematopoietic (blood-forming) stem cells can develop into any blood cell Mostly short-lived cells

14. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Blood cells as viewed under the microscope ZOOMING IN Which cells are the most numerous in the blood? Erythrocytes

15. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Checkpoint 12-5: Where do blood cells form? –Red bone marrow Checkpoint 12-6: What type of cell gives rise to all blood cells? –Hematopoietic stem cells

16. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Erythrocytes Red blood cells (RBCs) most numerous Biconcave shape Mature cells anuclear Contain hemoglobin –Binds to oxygen for transport –Carries hydrogen ions for buffering –Carries carbon dioxide for elimination

17. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Red blood cells as seen under a scanning electron microscope ZOOMING IN Why are these cells described as biconcave? They have depressions on both sides

18. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Checkpoint 12-7: Red cells are modified to carry a maximum amount of hemoglobin. What is the main function of hemoglobin? –Carry oxygen

19. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Leukocytes White blood cells (WBCs) colorless, round –Granulocytes Neutrophils (polymorphs) Eosinophils Basophils –Agranulocytes Lymphocytes Monocytes Prominent nuclei Clear body of foreign material, cellular debris, pathogens

20. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Granulocytes (A-C) and agranulocytes (D, E). ZOOMING IN Which group of leukocytes has segmented nuclei? Which specific type of leukocyte is largest in size? Smallest in size? Granulocytes Monocytes Lymphocytes

21. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Phagocytosis ZOOMING IN What type of epithelium makes up the capillary wall? Simple squamous epithelium

22. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Checkpoint 12-8: What are the types of granular leukocytes? –Neutrophils –Eosinophils –Basophils Of agranular leukocytes? –Lymphocytes –Monocytes Checkpoint 12-9: What is the most important function of leukocytes? –They fight infection by destroying pathogens that enter the body.

23. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Platelets Platelets (thrombocytes) Smallest formed element Not cells—no nuclei or DNA Fragments released from megakaryocytes Essential for blood coagulation (clotting)

24. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Platelets (thrombocytes)

25. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Checkpoint 12-10: What is the function of blood platelets? –Blood clotting

26. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Hemostasis Prevents blood loss when blood vessel ruptures Contraction of smooth muscles in blood vessel wall (vasoconstriction) Formation of platelet plug Formation of blood clot

27. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Blood Clotting Final steps in clotting –Damaged tissues release substances that form prothrombinase –Prothrombinase converts prothrombin to thrombin –Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin –Fibrin forms network of threads to form clot

28. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Final steps in blood clot formation ZOOMING IN What material in the blood forms a clot? Fibrin

29. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Checkpoint 12-11: What happens when fibrinogen converts to fibrin? –A blood clot forms

30. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Blood Types Blood types must be compatible for blood transfusion from donor to patient Proteins (antigens or agglutinogens) on red cells cause incompatibility –A and B antigens –Rh factor

31. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins The ABO Blood Type Group Four blood types involving A and B antigens A (only) B (only) AB (both antigens) O (neither antigen)

32. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Testing for Blood Type Blood sera (antisera) containing antibodies to A or B antigens prepared Sera added to blood sample Corresponding red cells clump (agglutination)

33. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Checkpoint 12-12: What are the four ABO blood type groups? –A–A –B–B –AB –O–O

34. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Blood typing ZOOMING IN Can you tell from These reactions whether these cells are Rh positive or Rh negative? No; you have to use the Rh antigen

35. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Blood Compatibility Safest transfusion is same blood type Type O blood can be given to any ABO type Type AB blood can receive any ABO type

36. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

37. The Rh Factor Red cell antigen group Rh (D antigen) –Rh-positive blood has antigen –Rh-negative blood lacks antigen Rh incompatibility can lead to hemolytic disease of newborn (HDN)

38. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Checkpoint 12-13: What are the blood antigens most often involved in incompatibility reactions? –A antigen –B antigen –Rh antigen

39. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Uses of Blood and Blood Components Blood stored in blood banks up to 35 days –Anti-clotting solution added –Expiration date added Autologous blood- patient’s own blood donated before elective surgery

40. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Whole Blood Transfusions Used for loss of large volume of blood Massive hemorrhage from serious injuries During internal bleeding During or after an operation Blood replacement in treatment of HDN

41. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Use of Blood Components Centrifuge separates plasma from formed elements Hemapheresis—keep desired elements and return remainder to donor Plasmapheresis—keep plasma and return formed elements to donor

42. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Use of Plasma Replace blood volume Treat circulatory failure (shock) Treat plasma protein deficiency Replace clotting factors Provide needed antibodies

43. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Checkpoint 12-14: How is blood commonly separated into its component parts? –By using a centrifuge

44. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Blood Studies Some blood tests are standard part of routine physical examination Machines can perform many tests simultaneously

45. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins The Hematocrit mL of red cells per 100 mL of whole blood Centrifuge used to pack cells Adult range for men 42%–54% Adult range for women 36%–46%

46. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Hematocrit

47. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Hemoglobin Tests g of hemoglobin per 100 mL of whole blood Adult range for men 14–17 g Adult range for women 12–15 g

48. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Blood Cell Counts Red cell counts –Range 4.5–5.5 million cells per microliter (μL) White cell counts –Range 5,000–10,000 cells per microliter (μL) Platelet counts –Range 150,000–450,000 per microliter (μL)

49. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins The Blood Slide (Smear) Examination of stained blood slide Red cells examined Platelets examined Differential white count performed Parasites may be found

50. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Checkpoint 12-15: The hematocrit is a common blood test. What is a hematocrit? –The percentage of red cell volume in whole blood

51. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Blood Chemistry Tests Batteries of blood serum tests often done by machine –Electrolytes –Blood glucose –Nitrogenous waste products –Creatine –Enzymes –Lipids –Plasma proteins –Hormones –Vitamins –Antibodies –Drug levels

52. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Coagulation Studies Performed before surgery and during treatment of certain diseases Amounts of clotting factors Bleeding time Clotting time Capillary strength Platelet function

53. Copyright © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Bone Marrow Biopsy Sample of red marrow through needle from sternum, sacrum, or iliac crest Used in diagnosing bone marrow disorders –Leukemia –Some types of anemia