1. Chapter 4: Preventing Injuries Through Fitness Training

2. Fitness is critical for performance and injury prevention
Improper conditioning is a major cause in sports related injuries
Areas of concern:
Flexibility
Muscular strength, endurance, power
Cardiorespiratory endurance
Coaches need to develop programs that focus on injury prevention and performance enhancement

4. Periodization in Training and Conditioning
Traditional seasons no longer exist for serious athletes
Periodization
Achieve peak performance
Decrease injuries and overtraining
Program that spans various seasons
Modify program relative to athlete’s needs

5. Year Round Training Cycle
Complete training cycle
Seasonal approach based on preseason, in-season, and off-season
Changes in intensity, volume, specificity of training occur in order to achieve peak levels of fitness for competition
Broken into periods or phases (lasting weeks or months)

6. Periods or Phases Transition period: Preparatory period:
Follows last competition (early off-season)
Unstructured (escape rigors of training)
Preparatory period:
Off-season
Hypertropy/endurance phase (Low intensity with high volume)
Allows for development of endurance base
Lasts several weeks to 2 months

7. Preparatory period (continued)
Strength Phase
Intensity and volume increase to moderate levels
Power Phase (High intensity/ pre-season)
Volume is decreased to allow adequate recovery
Competition period:
May last a < week or several months for seasonal sports
High intensity, low volume, skill training sessions
May incorporate weekly training cycles (1-7 days)
Designed to ensure peak on days of competition

8. Cross Training
Training for a sport with substitutions of alternative activities (carryover value)
Useful in transition and preparatory periods
Variety to training regimen
Should be discontinued prior to preseason as it is not sport-specific

9. Principles of Conditioning and Training
Warm-up/Cool-down
Motivation
Overload and SAID principle
Consistency/ routine
Progression
Intensity
Specificity
Individuality
Relaxation/ Minimize Stress
Safety

10. Warm-up
Precaution against unnecessary musculoskeletal injury and soreness
May enhance certain aspects of performance
Prepares body physiologically for physical work
Stimulates cardiorespiratory system, enhancing circulation and blood flow to muscles
Increases metabolic processes, core temperature, and muscle elasticity

11. General
Activities which bring a general warming to the body(break a sweat)
Not related to sport
Specific
Specific to sport
Stretching, jogging, running, throwing, catching
Should last minutes resulting in effects that will last 45 minutes

12. Cool-down Essential component of workout
Bring body back to resting state
5-10 minutes in duration
Often ignored
Decreased muscle soreness following training if time used to stretch after workout

13. Why is it important to have good flexibility?
Ability to move a joint(s) smoothly through a full range of motion (ROM)
Decreased ROM results in:
Decreased performance capabilities
Uncoordinated/awkward movements
Predisposes athlete to injury
Good flexibility is essential for successful physical performance
Recommended by athletic trainers to prevent injury

14. Factors That Limit Flexibility
Bony structures
Tissue approximation
Excessive fat
Muscle and tendon lengths
Connective tissue
Scarring and contractures
Skin

15. Range of Motion (ROM) Active range of motion = dynamic flexibility
Ability to move a joint with little resistance
Passive range of motion = static flexibility
Motion of joint to end points without muscle contraction
Must be able to move through unrestricted range
Must have elasticity for additional stretch encountered during activity

16. Agonist vs. Antagonist Muscles
Joints are capable of multiple movements
Example:
Quadriceps will extend knee with contraction
Hamstrings will stretch during extension
Quads (muscle producing movement) referred to as agonist
Muscle undergoing stretch referred to as antagonist
Agonist and antagonist work together to produce smooth coordinated movements

17. Stretching Techniques
Ballistic
Bouncing movement in which repetitive contractions of agonist work to stretch antagonist muscle
While effective in improving flexibility, caution should be exercised
Possible soreness (soccer example)

18. Static stretching Passively stretching 20-30 second hold = optimal
Go to point of pain and back off and hold for 30 seconds (3 to 4 times)
Controlled, less chance of injury
Not dynamic
Should precede ballistic stretching

19. Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation
Contract-relax
Hold-relax
Ten second push, ten second relax
Best technique to improve flexibility
Technique that involves combination of alternating contractions and relaxation of both agonist and antagonists

21. Assessment of Flexibility
Various devices have been designed to accommodate joint sizes and complexities of movement
Goniometer most widely used device
Can also utilize the following tests:
Trunk hip flexion test
Trunk extension test
Shoulder extension test

23. Is there a relationship between strength and flexibility?
Co-exist
Muscle bound = zero flexibility
Strength training will provide individual with ability to develop dynamic flexibility through full range of motion
Develop more powerful and coordinated movements

24. Flexibility, Muscular Strength, Endurance, and Power

25. Muscle Strength, Power, and Endurance
Strength: ability to generate force against resistance
Muscular endurance: repetitive muscular contractions (increase strength = increase endurance)
Power: the relationship between strength and time

26. Muscle Contractions Isometric contraction Isotonic contraction
No length change occurs during contraction
Isotonic contraction
Concentric- shortening of muscle with contraction in an effort to overcome more resistance
Eccentric - lengthening of muscle with contraction because load is greater than force being produced
Both are considered dynamic movements

27. Factors that Determine Levels of Muscular Strength
Size of muscle:
Function of diameter and of muscle fibers
Hypertrophy vs. Atrophy
Number of muscle fibers
Neuromuscular efficiency
Initial gains are due to increased efficiency
More effectively engage specific motor units
Biomechanical factors
Bones and muscles = Levers and pulleys

28. Fast-Twitch vs. Slow-Twitch Muscle Fibers
Motor units with distinct metabolic and contractile capability
Individual make-up
Muscles contain both types of fibers
Muscle functioning impacts ratios (postural vs. powerful movement)
Genetically determined
Slow twitch (Type I):
Generally major constituent of postural muscles
Fast twitch (Type II)
High force in short amount of time
Produce powerful movements

29. Levels of Physical Activity
Will influence increase/decrease in muscle strength
Also impacts cardiorespiratory fitness, flexibility and increases in body fat
Overtraining
Psychological and physiological breakdown
Signs
Apathy, loss of appetite, staleness, declines in performance, weight loss, inability to sleep
Prevent through appropriate training protocol, proper diet, and rest

30. What physiological changes occur to cause increased strength?
Multiple theories of muscle hypertrophy
Primary explanation of muscle hypertrophy:
Increase in protein myofilament number and size
Continued need for additional research

31. Core Stabilization Training
Core refers to muscles that make up center of body
Low back, pelvis, hips, abdomen
Works to stabilize body enabling muscles of extremity to function optimally
Weak core is a fundamental problem of inefficient movements = injury
Program targets strength, neuromuscular control, power, and endurance of the core
Program will stress multiple planes and incorporate various resistance techniques

32. Techniques of Resistance Training
Progressive resistance exercise
Overload principle must be applied
Must work muscle at increasingly higher intensities to enhance strength over time
If intensity of training does not increase, but training continues, muscle strength will be sustained

33. Isometric Exercise Contraction where muscle length remains unchanged
Muscle contraction that lasts 10 seconds and should be perform 5-10 times/daily
Pro: quick, effective, cheap, good for rehab
Con: only works at one point in ROM, produces spiking of blood pressure due to Valsalva maneuver

34. Variations exist between free and machine weight lifting
Concentric and eccentric training should be incorporated for greatest strength improvement
Concentric phase of lift should last 1-2 seconds; eccentric phase 2-4 seconds
Variations exist between free and machine weight lifting
Motion restrictions, levels of muscular control required, amount of weight that can be lifted
Equipment design, varying resistances

35. Progressive Resistance Exercise Techniques
Terminology associated with weight training
Repetitions
Repetition maximum
One repetition maximum
Set
Intensity
Recovery period
Frequency

36. When training should be able to perform 3 sets of 6-8 repetitions
Increases should occur in increments of 10%
1 RM can be utilized to measure maximum amount of weight that can be lifted - must be very careful
Training of a particular muscle group should occur 3-4 times per week (not on successive days)

37. Muscular Endurance vs. Strength
Training for endurance enhances strength and vice versa
Training for strength should involve lower repetitions at heavier weight
Training for endurance requires lower weight at repetitions

38. Open vs. Closed Kinetic Chain Exercises
Anatomical functional relationship for upper and lower extremities
OKC
When foot or hand are not in contact with the ground or supporting surface
CKC
Foot or hand are weight bearing
Widely used = more functional

39. Isokinetic Training Muscle contraction at a constant velocity
Maximal and constant resistance throughout the full range of motion
Maximal effort = Maximal strength gains
Rehab
Never widely used in strength training
Losing popularity in rehabilitation settings

41. Circuit Training Combination of exercise stations
stations, 3 times through
Design for different training goals
Flexibility
Calisthenics
Aerobic exercise

42. Plyometric Exercise
Rapid stretch, eccentric contraction followed by a rapid concentric contraction to create a forceful explosive movement
Rate of stretch vs. magnitude
Jumps, bounds, medicine ball throws
Very technical training - skills must be learned with appropriate technique
Often develop muscle soreness as a result of extensive eccentric loading

43. Training for the Female Athlete
Critical for female athlete
Significant hypertrophy is related to testosterone present within body
Remarkable gains are experienced initially due to enhanced nervous system and muscle interaction (efficiency-not muscle bulk)
Following initial gains, plateau occurs, with females

44. Males tend to continue to increase strength with training
Critical difference is the ratio of strength to body fat
Females have reduced strength to body weight ratio due to higher percentage of body fat
Ratio can be enhanced through weight training and decrease in body fat percentage/increased lean weight

45. Cardiorespiratory Endurance
Perform whole body activities for extended period of time
Performance vs. fatigue vs. injury
Aerobic exercise
Low intensity exercise that can be sustained for a long period of time
Anaerobic exercise
Activity where intensity is so high that demand for oxygen is greater than body’s ability to deliver

46. System’s four components
Heart
Lungs
Blood vessels
Blood
Improvements in endurance are the results of improvements in these 4 components

47. Impact on Heart Main pumping mechanism
Increase exercise = increased oxygen requirement = increase heart pumping
Heart able to adapt through increases in heart rate and stroke volume which will enhance overall cardiac output
Oxygenation of blood

48. What determines how efficiently the body is using oxygen?
Aerobic capacity = VO2max
More active = higher capacity
Average value = ml O2/min/kg
Increases in intensity require higher levels of oxygen consumption
Inherit certain range of maximum aerobic capacity (genetics)
Dependent on activity levels
Also impacted by muscle fiber types

49. Maximum Aerobic Capacity
Most accurate techniques must be performed in a laboratory setting
Treadmill, bicycle ergometer
Monitor heart rate and gas exchange at particular workload
Generally utilize heart rate to estimate percentage of maximum aerobic capacity
Indirect method
Heart rate and aerobic capacity have linear relationship

50. Types of Training for Cardiorespiratory Endurance
Continuous
Mode (type of exercise) - must be aerobic in nature
Frequency (at least 3 times/week)
Duration (at least 20 minutes)
Intensity (monitor intensity as % of heart rate or perceived exertion)
Training heart rate – target heart rate
Maximum HR = Age
Karvonen formula (60% HR Max)
Target HR=Resting HR+(.6 [Max HR – Resting HR)]

51. Interval training
Intermittent activities involving periods of intense work and active recovery
Must occur at 60-80% of maximal heart rate
Allows for higher intensity training at short intervals over an extended period of time
Most anaerobic sports require short burst which can be mimicked through interval training

52. Fartlek training Cross-country running that originated in Sweden
Speed play
Similar to interval training in that activity occurs over a specific period of time but pace and speed are not specified
Consists of varied terrain which incorporates varying degrees of hills
Dynamic form of training
Must elevate heart rate to minimal levels to be effective
Popular form of training in off-season