1. + CH 112 Overview of CH 10 and CH 14

2. + During exercise, the muscles use ATP to contract. ATP runs out pretty quickly but can be replenished rapidly by phosphocreatine. Exercise that lasts less than about 10 seconds can be sustained by ATP and phosphocreatine (the phosphagen system). Chapter 10 Highlights

3. + Exercise that lasts more than 10 seconds requires the use of metabolism to restore ATP, either through the aerobic or anaerobic pathway. The aerobic pathway is much more efficient than the anaerobic pathway at producing ATP. The rate at which oxygen is delivered to the muscles (VO 2 max) is one of the limits to the level of aerobic activity. Chapter 10 Highlights

4. + During aerobic sports, fuels such as fats, carbs, and proteins are completely oxidized to CO 2 and H 2 O. During anaerobic sports, only glucose can be metabolized, and it ends up as lactic acid. Athletic performance enhancers include mechanical, nutritional, physiological, and pharmacological aids. Chapter 10 Highlights (cont)

5. + ATP, the Cell’s Energy Currency Phosphocreatine Rapidly restores ATP Limited capacity (~10 seconds) Fuels that Power Exercise Primarily fats and carbohydrates (glucose or glycogen). The Molecular Basis of Exercise

6. + Mobilization of Fuels During glycolysis, glucose is oxidized to pyruvate and ATP is produced. Pyruvate can be oxidized in the efficient aerobic pathway (cellular respiration) or converted to lactic acid in the anaerobic pathway (fermentation). The rate at which oxygen is delivered to the muscles (VO 2 max) dictates the level of activity that can be sustained under aerobic conditions. The Molecular Basis of Exercise

7. + Gatorade (During) Provides carbohydrates, water, and electrolytes Nutritional Aids Chocolate Milk (After) 4:1 carb to protein ratio is optimal

8. + Creatine (power athletes) Increases stores of phosphocreatine, the muscle’s quickest energy reserve Nutritional Aids by Sport Bicarbonate (anaerobic athletes) Helps buffer lactic acid Carbo Loading (endurance athletes) Increases the stores of glycogen

9. + Improving Oxygen Delivery Blood Doping: red blood cells are removed several weeks prior to competition; body responds by making more red blood cells; right before competition, athlete receives a blood transfusion. Erythropoietin (EPO): hormone that promotes the production of red blood cells. Both result in increased hematocrit. Physiological Aids

10. + Effect of EPO on Hematocrit

11. + Stimulants Improve alertness and energy level Some, like caffeine, are legal Others, like amphetamines, are illegal Building muscle mass Anabolic steroids: structurally similar to the male sex hormone testosterone Pharmacological Aids

12. + Anabolic Steroids

13. + Chapter 14 Highlights Chemistry has played a large role in warfare throughout history, including in the development of conventional explosives, chemical weapons, and biological weapons. Explosives can be classified as low explosives (which burn) and high explosives (which detonate). 13

14. + Chapter 14 Highlights (cont) Chemical weapons are classified according to mode of action, including lung irritants (such as chlorine gas), vesicants (such as mustard gas), and nerve agents (such as VX). 14 Biological weapons, which are derived from living organisms, include viruses, bacteria, and toxic compounds found in nature.

15. + Low Explosives: e.g., gun powder An explosive mixture of potassium nitrate, charcoal, and sulfur developed by the Chinese in the 10 th century High Explosives Exemplified by nitroglycerine, which contains internal nitro groups (-NO 2 ) that rapidly oxidize the rest of the molecule Detonation results in a volume expansion because of a rapid release of heat and gaseous products. 15 Early Use of Chemistry in Warfare

16. + Factors Affecting Volume of a Gas 16 Fig 14.3

17. + Chemical Warfare Agents Definition Chemical substances, whether gaseous, liquid, or solid, which are used because of their direct toxic effects on humans, animals, or plants Classes Classified by their mode of action: lung irritants, vesicants, respiratory poisons, nerve agents, hallucinogens, and herbicides 17

18. + Classes of Chemical Weapons 18

19. + Chemical Warfare Agents (cont) Lung Irritants Damage lung tissue directly or via reaction to produce a corrosive compound Exemplified by chlorine gas (Cl 2 ) Cl 2 is a powerful oxidizing agent and also reacts with H 2 O in the lungs to form hypochlorous acid (HOCl), which oxidizes cellular molecules. 19

20. + Action of Hypochlorous Acid 20

21. + Chemical Warfare Agents (cont) Vesicants Produce painful blisters within any exposed tissue Exemplified by mustard gas Use of mustard gas in warfare led to the discovery that related compounds are useful anticancer drugs because they damage DNA 21

22. + Action of Nitrogen Mustard 22

23. + Chemical Warfare Agents (cont) Nerve Agents Inactivate the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, which is essential for muscle contraction. The result is rapid death by respiratory paralysis. Exemplified by VX Atropine acts as an antidote for nerve agents by blocking the acetylcholine receptor. 23

24. + Action of Atropine 24

25. + Biological Warfare Agents Definition Living organisms such as bacteria or toxic material derived from them, which are intended to cause disease or death in humans, animals, or plants Early Examples Disease-infected cadavers, blankets, and clothing Arrow poisons 25

26. + Biological Warfare Agents (cont) Types of Modern Bioweapons Bacteria: e.g., Bacillus anthracis, used by unknown parties to perpetrate the 2001 anthrax attacks. Viruses: e.g., variola, which causes smallpox and may be an emerging threat because individuals are no longer vaccinated against it. Toxins: e.g., botulinum toxin, produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum; lethal at doses of 1 ng/kg. 26

27. + Biological Warfare Agents (cont) Treatment for Modern Bioweapons Bacteria: antibiotics Viruses: vaccination 27