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Aging in Sport and Exercise
Chapter 18 Aging in Sport and Exercise
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Chapter 18 Overview Height, weight, and body composition
Physiological responses to acute exercise Physiological adaptations to exercise training Sport performance Special issues
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Introduction to Aging and Sport
Number of individuals over age 50 engaged in sport and exercise increased compared to 30 years ago Recreation Competition More fit compared to older sedentary counterparts Performance declines with age
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Introduction to Aging and Sport
Exercising into old age an unusual pattern Natural tendency to be sedentary Motivating factors? Primary aging versus comorbidities of age Cross-sectional versus longitudinal studies Medical care, diet, lifestyle factors Selective mortality Applicability of findings to larger aged population?
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Figure 18.1
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Height, Weight, and Body Composition
Height with age Starts at 35 to 40 years Compression of intervertebral discs Poor posture Later, osteopenia, osteoporosis Weight , then – 25 to 45 years: physical activity, caloric intake – 65+ years: loss of body mass, appetite
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Figure 18.2
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Height, Weight, and Body Composition
Body fat content tends to increase Active versus sedentary older adults vary Older athletes body fat content Older athletes central adiposity Fat-free mass starting around age 40 – Muscle, bone mass Sarcopenia (protein synthesis ) Due (in part) to lack of activity – Growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor 1
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Figure 18.3
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Height, Weight, and Body Composition
Bone mineral content Bone resorption > bone synthesis Due to lack of weight-bearing exercise Body composition variables Body weight Percent body fat Fat mass Fat-free mass (FFM)
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Figure 18.4a
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Figure 18.4b
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Figure 18.4c
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Figure 18.4d
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Height, Weight, and Body Composition
Training alters age-related body composition changes – Weight, percent body fat, fat mass – FFM (more likely with resistance training than with aerobic training) Men > women Biggest results with diet + exercise
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Physiological Responses to Acute Exercise
Strength and neuromuscular function with age Interferes with activities of daily living Manifests ~age 50 to 60 years Results from muscle mass Strength offset by resistance exercise
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Figure 18.5
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Figure 18.6
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Physiological Responses to Acute Exercise
Type II fiber loss with aging Decrease in type II motor neurons Type I neurons innervate old type II fibers? Higher percent type I fibers Training slows or stops fiber-type change
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Figure 18.7
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Physiological Responses to Acute Exercise
Size and number of muscle fibers with age Size of both type I and type II Lose 10% per decade after age 50 Endurance training no impact on decline in muscle mass with age Resistance training reduces muscle atrophy, muscle cross-sectional area
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Physiological Responses to Acute Exercise
Reflexes slow with age Exercise preserves reflex response time Active older people ≈ young active people Motor unit activation with age Exercise retains maximal recruitment of muscle – Some studies show strength due to local muscle (not neural) factors Exercise maintains muscle physiology Number of capillaries unchanged Oxidative enzyme activity only mildly reduced
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Physiological Responses to Acute Exercise
Central and peripheral cardiovascular decrements with age Reduced maximal HR Reduction varies considerably Electrical and receptor changes with age Same for active and sedentary people HRmax = [208 – (0.7 x age)]
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Physiological Responses to Acute Exercise
Maximal stroke volume (SV) with age – Contractility, response to catecholamines Partial loss of Frank-Starling mechanism LV, arterial stiffening Exercise attenuates decline in SVmax VO2max with age due to Qmax Due more to HRmax, less to SVmax Exercise attenuates decline in VO2max
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Physiological Responses to Acute Exercise
Sedentary habits risk for vascular aging – Cardiac and arterial compliance Endothelial dysfunction Reduced vasodilation Exercise risk Less arterial stiffening, endothelial dysfunction Preserved vasodilator signaling Research ongoing on proper exercise dose for cardiovascular benefit
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Physiological Responses to Acute Exercise
Peripheral blood flow with age ~10 to 15% reduction even with exercise Due to vasoconstriction, vasodilation – (a-v)O2 difference compensates for flow Effects of primary aging versus cardiovascular deconditioning Which changes result from aging alone? Which changes result from reduced activity?
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Figure 18.8
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Physiological Responses to Acute Exercise
Respiratory function with sedentary aging – Vital capacity and FEV1.0, residual volume, total lung capacity unchanged Less air exchanged – Lung and chest wall elasticity with age But does not limit exercise capacity Exercise maintains ventilatory capacity Pulmonary ventilation does not limit aerobic capacity Oxygen saturation remains high
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Physiological Responses to Acute Exercise
VO2max changes with aging Measured in L/min or ml/kg/min? Absolute versus relative decrement VO2max in normally active older people Declines steadily from 25 years to 75 years ~1% per year (~10% per decade)
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Table 18.1
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Physiological Responses to Acute Exercise
VO2max in older male athletes 5 to 6% decline per decade in active adults 3.6% decline over 25 years in elite athletes 15% decline per decade in previously active adults VO2max in older female athletes Fewer studies but similar to men ~1% decline per decade Longitudinal changes > cross-sectional changes
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Figure 18.9
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Table 18.2
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Physiological Responses to Acute Exercise
Percent decline in VO2max related to intensity of training before and during aging Factors that affect rate of decline Genetics General activity level Intensity and volume of training Age-related body composition changes Age range
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Figure 18.10
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Figure 18.11
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Physiological Responses to Acute Exercise
Lactate threshold (as % VO2max) Not predictive of running performance with aging Percent VO2max may not be best measure Remember: absolute VO2 with age Lactate threshold (as absolute VO2)
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Physiological Adaptations to Exercise Training
Effects of resistance training on strength – Strength (men, women: 30%; some studies of men: %) Fiber hypertrophy – Cross-sectional area of types I, II Neural adaptations • Muscle mass, muscle size, bone mineral density Improved activities of daily living, risk of falls
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Physiological Adaptations to Exercise Training
VO2max improvement with training Independent of sex, age, initial fitness Young: maximal cardiac output (central) Older: oxidative enzymes (peripheral) Anaerobic capacity with training Less known than aerobic training results Lactate threshold bad predictor of performance
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Sport Performance Running performance with age
Rate of decline independent of distance Both 100 m, 10 km records slow with age Decline accelerates past age 60
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Figure 18.12
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Sport Performance Swimming performance with age
Decline accelerates past age 70 Decline in women > decline in men
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Sport Performance Cycling performance Weight-lifting performance
Peaks between 25 and 35 years Speed then decreases by 0.7% per decade Weight-lifting performance Sum of power lifts then declines 1.8% per year
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Figure 18.13
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Special Issues Higher risk of death from hyperthermia
Higher core temperature than young subjects Metabolic heat gain related to absolute VO2 Heat loss related to relative percent VO2max Physical training affects thermoregulation Improves skin vasodilation (convection) Improves sweat rate (evaporation) Improves redistribution of cardiac output
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Figure 18.14
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Special Issues Exercise in cold risk of hypothermia
Risk not as great as hyperthermia Reduced ability to generate metabolic heat Excessive convective heat loss Core temperature can drop even with mild cold stress Must add behavioral thermoregulation
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Special Issues Exercise and longevity Exercise can lead to injury
Mild caloric restriction increases longevity Exercise may contribute to caloric balance Exercise compression of mortality Exercise can lead to injury Tendon injury (rotator cuff, Achilles) Cartilage injury (meniscus, focal injuries) Stress fractures Exercise can reduce risk of falls
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